A career in graphic design is perfect for a creative individual who has a sense of design. A graphic designer is one who creates ideas that are expressed in words andor pictures, and generally solves problems of visual communication, says Paul Rand, a professional designer . Employment in this profession is projected to increase 29 percent by the year 2006, which is the highest of any career according to a study done by the American Institute of the Graphic Arts . A graphic designer may work in a variety of places including a large firm or corporation, a specific design agency, a magazine or newspaper, or even in his own home as a freelance designer. There are few specific requirements needed to be involved in graphic design. However, there are similar traits and qualities that most designers generally possess, including training, knowledge of specific elements, using criticism positively, and a keen eye for color and balance.
The cost of being a graphic designer must also be factored in. Graphic design is a career that offers a creative outlet but can be quite stressful, which is why designers must be cooperative and work well with others. A dexterous designer knows how to use criticism positively. Oftentimes criticism is what makes a piece of art better. Depending on the project, job duties may include designing and preparing layouts, sketching out ideas, arranging the materials needed, or putting together the final image. Since there may be different requirements for each client, a graphic designer should have the ability to be spontaneous and creative and work well under pressure and stressful in situations. DO NOT be a designer if you stress out easily says Steve Jones .
In many cases a designer has deadlines which may not be negotiated with his clients, and therefore he must work productively. There is also the downside of creating an image that is not accepted by the client; the designer must then discuss what is wrong with it and perhaps start over. Any job becomes creative when the doer cares about doing it right, or doing it better. Certain clients leave the project completely openended and up to the designer, while others have a specific idea in mind. It is important for the designer to remember that he is creating a piece of work for someone else’s liking, and it may not be exactly what he would do on his own time.
Most clients, however, choose their designers by looking at their portfolios or recognizing other pieces they have created. A client usually hires someone with a style he prefers. Other qualities that a designer must have include the ability to make original designs, knowledge of composition, and attention to detail.
Social skills play a major role in the profession. While creating a design may be done independently, the final piece is usually presented by the designer to someone else. It is not likely that advanced math will be used, but basic skills such as adding and subtracting quickly and accurately are necessary. There is also not a lot of physical activity essential to the artist. At the end of a project, your brain will feel like it just ran a marathon. The amount of time it takes to create a piece of graphic art depends on the individual. If he is given a deadline, for instance, the designer will use his time wisely and efficiently to finish the project. A designer often works from his home, which allows them to choose their own hours. An experienced artist is aware of their personal style of creating and finishing a project.. Preparing to be a professional graphic designer can vary depending on how much experience is desired by the individual. On average, the minimum amount of education is between two and four years of training in either fine art or design. Many choose to attend a general university to start with and often transfer to a specific art or design school. High school students are not expected to take classes specifically in graphic design, but advanced art classes will help them in the future.. Modernday designers will be the leaders of the next millennium and will produce the designs that will be seen for years to come. The opportunities as a graphic artist are endless.
INTEL CORPORATION
A corporation is a business that, although owned by one or more investors, legally has the rights and duties of an individual. Corporations have the right to buy, sell, and own property. Corporations may make legal contracts, hire and fire workers, set prices, and be sued, fined, and taxed. A business must obtain a charter of incorporation from a state legislature or Congress to be legally recognized as a corporation While corporations didn't exist until the mid to late 1800s, the idea of the corporation had existed since the early 1600s. It all started with English merchants who started trading companies to help fund the early colonies. If the colonies thrived, the stockholders reaped in the profit.
A corporation is started when a sole proprietorship, a one-owner business, that is the most common form of business institution in the US, or a partnership, an association of two or more people in order to run a business, decides that they don't want to be personally responsible for any loss the company might have. Or they might decide that they want the company to "live on" after they die, that is for the business to have "unlimited life". Since neither of these goals can be reached with a sole proprietorship, or a partnership, the owner decide that he want to "convert" their business to a corporation. The owner file a charter of incorporation from the government to be legally recognized as a corporation. The ownerthen sell shares of stock, documents representing ownership in the corporation, to investors. These investors buy and sell the stock to small investors, or stockholders. Since there is no limit to the number of shareholders to a company, the investors vote on a board of directors.
The board of directors are in charge of hiring the people responsible for the every-day running of the corporation. These positions include, but are not limited to: the president, vice president, and other chief administrators. If a corporation reaps a profit, investors may receive a dividend, or a share of the monetary gain made by the company. The elected board of directors choose whether the money will go towards profit, expansion of the company, modernization of the company, or research and development. "With about 85% of the microprocessor market, Intel is definitely inside. Its microprocessors -- including the Pentium -- have been providing brains for IBM-compatible PCs 1981.Intel started on July 16, 1968 when magnetic core memory was the leading technology at the time. They were trying to make semi-conductor memory practical with silicon memory. Unfortunately for Intel semi-conductor memory cost 100 times more than magnetic core memory, but the silicon had many advantages - smaller size, greater performance, and reduced energy consumption. Then, in late 1968,the Japanese company Busicom asked Intel to produce a series of chips for a group of programmable calculators that they were producing.
Normally, chips were made specifically for each product. Well, the designers at Intel decided that they would make a general purpose logical chip to replace all of the many different varieties of chips that would go into the different electronics. The logical chip was a major success; the only problem was that Busicom had the rights to the chip. Realizing that this chip could have a major impact on society, the founders Bob Noyce and Gordon Moore praised the new chip, while people in the corporation still wanted to stick with producing memory. Intel bought the rights to the chip from the struggling Japanese company for 60,000dollar, and this "paved the way for Intel's developing vision of ubiquitous microprocessor-based computing.
IT INDUSTRY
There are many changes that occurred in the industrial organization of interexchange telecommunication services in the United States during the 1985-1995 period. Let’s look at the general idea of Telecommunications. It is the two-way exchange of info in the form of voice or data messages between tow users at distinct geographic locations” . The two-way exchange is now a numerous way exchange through the use of computers and the Internet. There are four important areas of the telecommunication industry in the United States. Technology plays a major role in telecommunications. Before technology, there was no such thing as telecommunications. During the ten year period there are some key advances in telecommunications due to technology. With growing technology, more companies want a piece of the action. There is a significant increase in long distance carriers and an increase in the size of these carriers. There is also a large influx in pricing and competition during this period.
Another key factor in the success of the telecommunication industry is the regulations established for individual carriers and the industry as a whole. With the increasing size of the industry and the major technological advances, stricter regulations must be present to keep the structure of the industry. Lastly, there are some differences between local and long distance carriers that must be looked at to fully understand the industry. There is also a fifth major aspect that defines Telecommunications, that is the American Telephone &Telegraph Company and the history behind it. Technology is a key aspect in the growth of telecommunications. If one had to point to the single most important reason for the new competition in local telephone markets. It is the advance of technology. Digitalization has reduced barriers between voice telephone, data, and media services . Microprocessors are the principal component of digital switches. So as their performance increases and their price falls, switching costs fall and scale and scope economies increase . Scope economies mean that a few companies produce many services. The adoption of digital technology in all aspects of the network has improved performance and lowered costs.
Digital transmission, whether over copper of fiber cables or over the airwaves, is cleaner and more secure due to more durable cables. Technological advances such as fiber optics and wireless transmission have paved the way for competition in the local exchange. But, new technology alone could not bring competition to the local exchange . It takes innovations in communications technology and new service offerings pressure both suppliers and industry regulators to change . In 1984, there was a large growth in the size of the industry and of its respective business. Teleport offered competitive local business services in New York City . Competition is met with aggressive responses, including price cuts and improved service offerings. The new competitiveness effected rates and offerings of local exchange carriers in years to come. In particular, the integration of local, long distance, cellular and cable services establishes the groundwork for offering innovative service packages at Bundled Rates.
Two factors are most important for the relative advantages of the various new competitors: The incremental costs of building local telephone networks and the pre-existing goodwill with potential subscribers . There were gains and mistakes made by several competitive firms during this period. Instead of divesting itself, Ameritech proposed to interconnect with competitors and unbundled its network services selling services at nondiscriminatory cost-based rates . They were trying to be competitive in a world of monopoly. In 1994, MCI decided on a strategy to build its own local networks in selected cities for selected customers. Problems struck when they could not reach households. It proved to be very expensive and MCI quietly scaled back its plans. MCI then decided to grow internally by creating its MCI metro division . These firms were trying different approaches to compete with AT&T after the divesture. The cost wars during the period also had an affect on companies entering the market. Since average costs are everywhere declining, strong scale economies prevail. Scope economies occur when a single firm can provide an entire array of services more cheaply than a collection of firms who specialize in just a few of those services. Scope economies stem from the joint use of facilities by several services without substantial congestion problems.
ADVANCEMENT IN MUSIC
Music has been around sense the dawn of time. When man first started to discover music it was not the kind of music we have today. All it consisted of was grunts, moans, and banging things. Music has evolved just as much as the people that created it. From Chromagnum men to musician and from grunting too classical music, rock, and rap. The first people imitated music from nature. They mimicked the sound from their every day life. It had no rhythm, beat, or tune it was just noise, but later turned into what we now call music. Ancient people used music for much more than entertainment they used it in every day life. They would yell and scream during battle, blow a horn as a warning, have ceremonies to honor the dead or bring the rain, signal danger, to show your importance in society, it was also used as a healing power. On the front lines of battle would be a soldier that would be holding a drum or a flute. When this was a common act the instruments would be spread around to different cultures after a battle. This brought on a new way of looking at music. Around the 16th century people started to collect instead of play music. A persons hands and feet were the first of all the instruments and is still the most common, because every one has them. A persons hands and feet were readily available, and easy to use. The drum is the second most common percussion instrument. Like most of the other instruments the drum was found by accident when someone hit a hallow log with a stick. The hallowed out stumps then became drums that were decorated. Drums were used for war or for signaling over long distances. The drum was a common instrument because it was so easy to use; all they had to do was strike it. The second percussion instrument was the rattle. The rattle was found later in the time when humans started to grow plants. It was found accidentally when someone picked up a dried out gourd of some sort and shook it. The ancient rattles were readily available because the people that grew the plants were just learning how to grow plant so they made many mistakes. The harp has been around since humans have started to use tools. The harp was founded during the hunt. The harp was first a bow used for killing small animals but when early humans realized that it made music it became the harp. The harp is an instrument surrounded in myths from many different cultures. The ancient harps were all shapes and sizes, from small hand held harps to large harps that were bolted to the floor. The harps would sometimes have colored strings on it to make it easier to play because it would have many strings on it. Some other ancient stringed instruments were the scrapers from the 16th century, and the picker from the 16th century. The scrapers and the pickers were all ancient forms of present-day violins, fiddles, and guitars. Most of the ancient string instrument’s strings were made of horsehair, hemp, or animal intestines.
ALL ABOUT GUITARS
Jimmy Hendrix, Eddie VanHalen, B. B. King, Angus Young, Brian "Head" Welch, Fletcher Dragge. What do all of these people have in common? They are all guitar heroes in they're own styles of music. However, because of the different styles of music they play, each guitarist mentioned above uses a different style of guitar. The guitars different body styles and shape help mold the perfect sound for the style you play. From sweet and warm, to loud and thrashing, the guitar is one of the most versatile instruments and can be used for any style of music. Most styles of music have a specific guitar that embodies each genres sound. JimmyHendrix, a virtuoso of the 60' era, played a Fender Stratocaster.Eddie VanHalen, know for his innovative "tapping" style solos, Plays a custom peavey guitar called a Wolfgang. B. B. King, a blues guitar legend, plays a signature model Gibson Hollow body. Angus young, lead guitarist for AC/DC, plays a solid body Gibson SG. Head, one of twoguitar players for the band Korn, plays an Ibanez 7-string model.Fletcher Dragge, a pioneer in the field of punk, plays a standardseries RG Ibanez. To those who don't play guitar these names may beunfamiliar, but to those who play, these guitars cover most of thedifferent sounds you can get out of a guitar. One way a guitar sounds different than other models is the way it is built. Depending on what kind of wood is used the sound can completely change. Some examples of woods used for guitars are ash, pine, sandalwood, rosewood, and maple. The more dense the wood is, the longer the sustain it has . Also, the lighter the wood, the brighter tone it has. The wood used for the fret board is also important. Usually it is made of maple or rosewood. Each of these woods has a different feel to it . When a guitar is manufactured, there are three ways of attaching the fretboard (or neck) of the guitar to the body. The first style is a bolt-on neck. The fret board is literally bolted and glued to the body of the guitar. This is the cheapest and quickest way to attach the neck. Although it is the fastest and cheapest, guitars with a bolt-on neck still get a great sound; even though you sacrifice some sustain. The second way to attach the neck is called a set-neck style. The body has a slot that is the same size as the end of the neck. They attach the neck using only glue. This creates more contact between the neck and the body for a long sustain and a fat, warm tone. The third style is not even a way to connect the neck to the body. It is called neck-through body style. The neck of the guitar and the center section of the body are one piece of wood. They then glue a "wing" to each side of the center part of the body half of the guitar creating a huge sustain, and an amazing tone. This last process cost much more than the other two styles.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN RAP
Rap music as a musical form began among the youth of South Bronx,New York in the mid 1970’s. Individuals such Kool Herc andGrandmaster Flash were some of the early pioneers of this art form.Through their performances at clubs and promotion of the music, rapconsistently gained in popularity throughout the rest of the 1970’s.The first commercial success of the rap song “Rapper's Delight” by theSugar Hill Gang in 1979 helped bring rap music into the nationalspotlight. The 1980’s saw the continued success of rap music with manyartists such as Run DMC, L.L. Cool J, Fat Boys, and west coast rappers Ice-T and N.W.A becoming popular. Today, in the late 1990’s rap music continues to be a prominent and important aspect of African- American culture.Rap music was a way for youths in black inner city neighborhoodsto express what they were feeling, seeing, and living and it became aform of entertainment. Hanging out with friends and rapping orlistening to others rap kept black youths out of trouble in thedangerous neighborhoods in which they lived. The dominant culture didnot have a type of music that filled the needs of these youth, so theycreated their own. So, rap music originally emerged as a way "forinner city youth to express their everyday life and struggles". Rap is now seen as a subculture that, includesa large number of middle to upper white class youths, has grown tosupport and appreciate rap music. Many youth in America today are considered part of the rapsubculture because they share a common love for a type of music thatcombines catchy beats with rhythmic music and thoughtful lyrics tocreate songs with a distinct political stance. Rap lyrics are aboutthe problems rappers have seen, such as poverty, crime, violence,racism, poor living conditions, drugs, alcoholism, corruption, andprostitution. These are serious problems that many within the rapsubculture believe are being ignored by mainstream America. Thosewithin the rap subculture recognize and acknowledge that theseproblems exist. Those within this subculture consider "the othergroup" to be those people who do not understand rap music and themessage rap artists are trying to send. The suppresser, or opposition,is the dominant culture, because it ignores these problems and perhapseven acts as a catalyst for some of them. “The beats of rap music has people bopping and the words havethem thinking, from the tenement-lined streets of Harlem, New York, tothe mansion parties of Beverly Hills, California” .Rap music, once only popular with blacks in New York City,Washington, D.C., and hiladelphia, has grown to become America's freshest form of music, giving off energy found nowhere else. While the vocalist(s) tell a story, the sic jockey provides the rhythm,operating the drum machine and "scratching". Scratching is defined as “rapidly moving the record back and forth under the needle to create rap's famous swishing sound”. The beat can be traditional funk or heavy metal, anything goes. The most important part of rap is "rapping," fans want to hear the lyrics.During every generation, some old-fashioned, ill-humored people have become Fightened by the sight of kids having a good time and have attacked the source of their pleasure.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
A great deal of conjecture has been expended on the question as to the genesis of the Roman basilica. For present purposes it may be sufficient to observe that the addition of aisles to the nave was so manifest a convenience that it might not improbably have been thought of, even had models not been at hand in the civic buildings of the Empire. The most suitable example that can be chosen as typical of the Roman basilica of the age of Constantine is the church of S. Maria Maggiore. And this, not merely because, in spite of certain modern alterations, it has kept in the main its original features, but also because it departs, to a lesser extent than any other extant example, from the classical ideal. The lateral colonnade is immediately surmounted by a horizontal entablature, with architrave, frieze, and cornice all complete. The monolithic columns, with their capitals, are, moreover, homogenous, and have been cut for their position, instead of being like those of so many early Christian churches, the more or less incongruous and heterogeneous spoils of older and non-Christian edifices. Of this church, in its original form, no one however decidedly his tastes may incline to some more highly developed system or style of architecture will call in question the stately and majestic beauty.
The general effect is that of a vast perspective of lines of noble columns, carrying the eye forward to the altar, which, with its civory or canopy, forms so conspicuous an object, standing, framed, as it mere, within the arch of the terminal apse, which forms its immediate and appropriate background. S. Maria Maggiore is considerably smaller than were any of the other three chief basilicas of Rome .Each of these, in addition to a nave of greater length and breadth, was furnished with a double aisle. This, however, was an advantage which was not unattended with a serious drawback from a purely esthetic point of view.
For a great space of blank wall intervening between the top of the lateral colonnade and the clerestory windows was of necessity required in order to give support to the penthouse roof of the double aisle. And it is curious, to say the least, that it should not have occurred to the builders of those three basilicas to utilize a portion of the space thus enclosed, and at the same time to lighten the burden of the wall above the colonnade, by constructing a gallery above the inner aisle.
It is true, of course, that such a gallery is found in the church of S. Agnese, where the low-level of the floor relatively to the surface of the ground outside may have suggested this method of construction; but whereas, in the East, the provision of a gallery as usual from very early times, it never became otherwise than exceptional in the West. Taking East and West together, we find among early and medieval basilican churches examples of all the combinations that are possible in the arrangement of aisles and galleries. These, however, are modifications in the general design of the building. Others, not less important, though they are less obviously striking, concern the details of the construction. Of these the first was the substitution of the arch for the horizontal entablature, and the second that of the pillar of masonry for the monolithic column.
ECONOMIC GROWTH
Economic growth refers to the rate of increase in the total production of goods and services within an economy. Economic growth increases the productivity capacity of an economy, thereby allowing more wants to be satisfied. A growing economy increases employment opportunities, stimulates business enterprise and innovation. A sustained economic growth is fundamental to any nation wishing to raise its standard of living and provide a greater well being for all. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the monetary value of all final goods and services produced in Australia over a specific period of time, usually a year. It is the total value of production within the economy. The total value of production is the total value of the final goods or services less the cost of intermediate goods purchased. GDP at market prices measures the value of total production at the present price level. That is, GDP at market prices measures both the total physical volume of goods and services produced and the prices at which these goods and services are sold. GDP at market prices has considerable usefulness when measuring the growth rates and relative importance of different industries or sectors within the economy.
The method for measuring GDP at market prices is implied by the following formula; [(current year quantity) x (Current year price)]. However GDP at constant prices is the most common method of measuring economic growth. GDP at constant prices excludes the effect of price variations and allows for the measurement or comparison of real or actual production levels. Because of this, GDP at constant prices is usually referred to as real GDP. Real GDP is measured by the following formula; [(current year quantity) x (based year price)]. A more reliable measure of economic growth is real GDP per capita; this measurement takes into account both the total production of the nation and the total population. Real GDP per capita measures the real income per head of the population. This can be measured by the following formula; Per capita nominal GDP = Nominal GDP / Population, Per capita real GDP = Real GDP / Population. Seven factors determine economic growth.
Natural resources such as land, mineral deposits, waterways; climatic conditions provide an essential foundation to economic growth. Combined with the other resources of capital, labour and enterprises, natural resources can be developed and organised to increase the productive capacity if the nation. Consequently the quality and size of the labour force is a major determinant of economic growth. Education and vocational training are essential the growth potential of Australia. The promotion of education and job training schemes increase the knowledge, skills and flexibility of the workforce that contributes to potentially higher levels of productivity and efficiency. Wether from natural increase or immigration population growth can cause a higher level of economic growth. An increasing population requires increased public spending on housing, education and other social needs while businesses expectations of increased demand induces higher levels of private investments.
Research, innovation and technological developements are essential to any economy wishing to increase their long-term productive capacity. Improved technology lifts overall efficiency and raises the productive base to the economy. An important prerequisite for economic growth is capital accumulation. Private investment spending on plant, machinery and equipment ensures the future production of goods and services. The greater the degree of capital accumulation the greater the potential for increased production. High levels of inflation cause market interest rates to rise and this upward movement ca aversively affect business confidence and levels of investment. Periods of inflation generally disadvantage companies by increasing costs and squeezing business profits. The political stability of the nation is a vital factor in determining economic growth and the standard of living. Countries experiencing civil disturbance and political instability are unable to effectively sustain efficient production. As a result these countries are disadvantaged through their inability ti attract foreign investment and export markets. Subsequently the overseas sector is a key factor in determining economic growth within Australia. Exports sales form a substantial part of Australia’s GDP and foreign capital inflow continues to be essential to Australia’s total investment and the financing of imports The importance of a higher economic growth rate is essential to improve the basic living of the population and provide a greater variety of choices. Basic benefits of a higher economic growth rate may include better health care and a better infrastructure.
AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
There is no industry more present in the world-wide community than the automobile industry. The automobile has changed the lives, culture, and economy of the people and nations that manufacture and demand them. Ever since the late 1800s when the first “modern” car was invented by Benz and Daimler in Germany, the industry has grown into a billion dollar industry affecting so many aspects of our lives. There are more than 400 million passenger cars alone on the roads today. During the early part of the twentieth century, the United States was home to more than 90 percent of the world’s automotive industry, but has shrunk to about 20 percent in today’s world. This drastic change has occurred by the booming economies in such nations as Japan, Germany, Canada, France, Italy, and other nations. The US auto industry “sales totaled 205 billion dollar, or 3.3 percent of the total Gross Domestic Product.By the end of 19th century, there were about 500 auto manufacturers, but that number dropped sharply to 23 by 1917, and today the Big Three dominate the market. Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler make up the Big Three which account for 23 percent of the world’s motor vehicle production in 1997, with the Japanese industries coming in second, producing 21 percent. Germany produces 9 percent, Spain, France, South Korea, and Canada each produce 5 percent of the international market in 1997. In the US alone, the auto industry, which includes it’s 500,000 car-related businesses, create 12 million jobs.
The automobile is clearly an oligopoly, but each company’s control of the market has gradually diminished because of rising foreign competition. The US has three main auto manufacturers, Japan has five major producers as does Germany. Each of these companies produce differentiated versions of the same product, have control over their products’ prices, and rely heavily on non-price competition. Each company produces a new line of cars for each model annually. There are many different types of cars, like sedans, station wagons, Sport Utility Vehicles (SUV), two-doors, and four-doors, but by comparing models between two competing companies, you can see how great the similarities are. The auto industry can still thrive even though it’s products are so similar because the demand for cars is immense and continuous. People rely on cars for so many things that life without one seems impossible, especially in the US which registered 141 million cars in 1988, whereas Japan, the second highest, only registered 30 million. The creation and production of a new car starts about three to four years before it is released to the public. The initial planning stage begins in the company’s corporate headquarters with ideas for the car from product planners and company officials.
Automotive designers draw prospective sketches of the new car, and once approved, model makers create small scale models of the car in fiberglass or clay, then forge life size models also in clay or fiberglass. Automotive engineers then develop each part of the car, and mock-up builders create those indigenous parts of the new car. Test drivers check over the entire system, analyzing how it runs, and then gives suggestions on improving the vehicle. Automotive engineers test all the new, specialized parts of the car, and after all the parts are tested, plant engineers plan how to best mass-produce the new car. Of all the people working in the automobile industry, most will be found in this next industry which is the assembly plant.
In the United States, the majority of these assembly plants can be found in the Michigan, Great Lakes area, and it, on average, takes about ninety minutes on the assembly line for an entire car to be produced. When planning a new car model, the company tries to create what the consumer wants. This is very difficult because as stated earlier it take between three and four years to develop a car. When General Motors begins developing a new product, it starts by assembling a new team to coordinate the production. After this team is assembled, millions of dollars are spent on dispensing and analyzing public surveys, private firm’s own research, government research, and past car sales to determine what the consumer wants. The past decade has seen many interesting fluctuations within the automobile industry. Overall the auto industry fluctuates with the normal business cycle, for motor vehicles are an elastic demand to consumers. The more the price for cars goes up, the less people buy cars. For many years, the automobile industry has seen very large profits because the demand and necessity for cars has increased significantly. Recently, large foreign competitors and steadily increasing prices in motor vehicles have reduced these surplus profits within the industry. Consumers are now demanding lower prices and more luxuries in their cars.
ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY
The roots of modern day regulation can be traced all the way back to the late 1800's and found in the form of antitrust. By the beginning of the 20th century, the U.S. government had formed the interstate Commerce Commission to regulate the railroad industry, and shortly thereafter, many other regulatory commissions were founded in the transportation, communication, and securities fields. The main goal of these regulatory commissions was to create a reasonable rate structure that would be appealing to both producers and consumers. While this system has worked for many years, it has recently come under heavy criticism, with many people pushing for open competition among electric power producers. Although once believed to be an impossible proposal, competition among electric power producers is finally a reality in a few areas.
Massachusetts is just one state where legislation implemented to create competition among electric power producers is not only favored by the people of the state, but has also provided significant rate reductions as well. The attempt at regulating price in the electric industry is a troublesome one. The objective is not only to minimize the cost to consumers, but also to create a rate structure that will entice the electric company to remain in the industry. The regulatory commission wants the electric company to have a reason to innovate so that they will be able to provide cheaper power in the future. However, if the commission captures all gains from innovation in the form of lower prices, then the electric company has no incentive to undertake any type of innovation. Therefore, a compromise must be reached which would provide adequate incentives for firms to undertake cost-reducing actions while at the same time ensuring that the price for consumers is not exorbitant.
The term regulation refers to government controlled restrictions on firm decisions over price, quantity, and entry and exit. Each factor of an industry must be regulated for producers and consumers to truly benefit. The control of price does not mean setting one fixed price, but rather entails the creation of a price structure for purchasing electricity during peak and non-peak times. The control of quantity refers to the government's attempt to control the amount produced or in this case the amount of electricity produced. For example, in the electric industry, it does not make sense to have a lot of small power plants produce electricity. However, at the same time one company can not be allowed to monopolize the industry and set prices at its own discretion.
Another factor in this problem is the control of entry and exit in the electric industry. By controlling who can enter the industry, the government can control who produces the electricity and how much of it they produce. However, the effectiveness of regulation has begun to be questioned, and created the evolution of a more competitive market. The Massachusetts Electricity Law, passed by legislature and signed into law on November 25, 1997, was developed over three years with input and support from consumer advocates, small businesses and large employers, energy providers and experts, labor and environmental groups. The main objective of the new law was to allow Massachusetts consumers to choose their electricity supplier by breaking up the utility monopolies, and creating competition that will lead to lower rates in the future. Under the new law, local electric companies still own and maintain the wires that bring the electricity to homes and businesses, but consumers are now able to choose the company that provides the electricity they use. The distribution of electricity remains regulated to ensure reliable service to all consumers and to set distribution rates based on cost and performance, not at market prices.
ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT
Whether it be through intensified media attention, or due to the efforts of prominent scientists and other members of society, we have become increasingly aware of the detrimental effects that technological advances in industry and agriculture have on the global environment. However, as Carl Sagan points out in “Pulling the Plug on Mother Earth” awareness is not enough, nor is society’s response to the catastrophic implications of environmental pollution rapid enough. Slowness to implement sound strategies are in part due to the fact that the threats we face are nebulous, since they come in the form of particles of invisible gases and radioactivity, and in part because response to pollution appears to be so costly at individual, governmental and corporate levels.
It appears that great material loss as well as visual manifestation have been the only ways to galvanize action towards altering and limiting technologies so that adverse chemicals and substances are no longer belched into the environment. For example, Sagan is right on the mark when he indicates that it took the reality that CFCs were destroying the sensitive but protective ozone layer to encourage large chemical companies to begin a gradual phase-out of these substances, even when scientists had already discovered the terrible effects of the chemical combination. Sagan says that to slowly stop usage of such obviously dangerous substances is not enough, for even with current conditions, it is estimated that the damaged ozone layer will require at least 100 years to repair itself.
In the interim, we are risking danger to the food chain, global warming, and increased cases of skin cancer. Rather than risk these catastrophes, Sagan calls for the immediate phase-out of CFCs, as well as to improve energy usage, plant trees, and curb the population explosion as supplemental methods to improve the environment. While the cause and effect relationship between technological advances and pollution have certainly influenced public outcry towards change, and influenced corporations to alter their poisoning mechanisms, the immediate change that Sagan calls for will necessarily meet with resistance. Sagan’s own “revelation” about mankind’s reticence to act unless literally “under the gun” remains a valid point. Destruction of the ozone layer and incidents such as the Exxon oil spill in Alaska are indeed enormous calamities, and we have been cautioned by at least one reputable scientist as to the risks we take by delaying reform, but these events are still not great enough to spawn greater action than handling the immediate situation.
It is one thing to agree that car travel pollutes the environment, and to see dense smog in the Los Angeles Basin, but millions will still get in their vehicles tomorrow to drive their jobs. Current technologies available have been incorporated into lifestyle at a very practical level. The large cogs of public and private interests also turn slowly due to this infrastructure of product usage which has become so firmly entrenched. Decisions that were made decades ago, such as automobile transit phasing out train transit, and the manufacture of energy through the building of nuclear plants, effect and influence us right now at very fundamental levels. Just as the ozone layer will take decades to repair itself, society and public acceptance requires time to shift and modify as well, as Sagan does well to point out. The challenge to orchestrate the changes necessary for environmental improvement are further complicated in at least two ways.
First, there are conflicting viewpoints as to the role government plays to influence private industry to replace technologically damaging processes with more ecologically sound technologies. Second, to phase out current technologies is a burden many corporations are unwilling to take on; implementation of new technologies adversely affects profit margins. Third, governmental failures in policy, according to Morgensen and Eisenstodt in “Profits are for Rape and Pillage,” create a situation where corporations have no incentive to move towards pollution control. Implementation of governmental policies and programs designed to improve the environment fail because there is no incentive for legislators to determine the costs and benefits of their legislation, as there is a lack of appropriate experience in the matter.
FUTURE TECHNOLOGY
People often think that future is all about flying cars, robots and space travelling. Maybe it will be like that, who knows, but at least until this day the changes haven’t been remarkable. Companies are all the time investing more money on research and development. This indicates that companies and government are interested to achieve and find new technological inventions that would change the markets. All ready one of the computer related inventions, Internet, has changed the spreading of information globally. E-companies’ are stocks are rising in the stock markets like rockets. This is a great example how future technology will change the economics around the world as it affects greatly our everyday life.
“Internet is worldwide network of connected computers. This network enables you to communicate with the rest of the world in different ways.” Has been approximated that the total amount of information globally doubles every 18 months, which indicates that internet, as an important part of media nowadays, affects everyone of us though we might not have a possibility to be on-line. The approximated number of people who are on-line daily is more than 18%. “As you can imagine and as you probably may have seen, there are a lot companies. You can find the big ones like Coca-Cola, Disney, Xerox, IBM. Apart from supplying information and amusement, they mostly use the web for name and product branding . There's a completely new industry with lots and lots of Net based companies like the search engines, banner exchanges, hosting services, (Net) marketers and software enterprises. And there are others, which have expanded their originally offline business field to the Net .Small and medium business companies selling to consumers. A great part of them use the Net to expand their offline business, others try to make a living on it. And some of them see the necessity to transfer from one to the other in the future.
Business-to-business companies are also found on the Net. In short, all kind of enterprises have taken the step to the online world.” Internet is not only a way to spend time surfing, but it is also an very good way to make money by transforming products, services and markets. It is an easy way to reach people when thinking advertising and it is an easy way to people to reach the information wanted, but the competition between companies in the virtual reality of Internet, is as hard as in the real world. Government’s space program also influences and will influence economics of the future. U.S. government’s NASA (North American Space Association) has done great job exploring space and research new opportunities in outer space and other planets. The question is how the new future technology will change the direction of economics and by that our living on Earth or maybe on some other planet…
The world population is growing fast. The room to live on earth might be a problem in future, and Earth might not be able to feed the upcoming population. This is one of the reasons why we have to explore the space for new opportunities. The problem is the money. Are taxpayers willing to pay? After the resent failure of sending a $266 million Pathfinder to Mars, taxpayers started doubt is the space program worth it, but mistakes that are caused by understaffed and overworked space teams are not unique to interplanetary missions, like NASA’s Pathfinder mission. A single broken cord can turn to a 400 million dollar cost, but who said it is not risky.Is this 450 billion dollar plan going to give taxpayers their moneys back? No, because the new technology will help their children and grandchildren to live their everyday lives in polluted and overpopulated environment caused by the past generations. “In recent years, cost-reduction efforts throughout America’s space industry have had profound effects on the workforce. Older and more experienced workers were the predominant target of cost-conscious layoffs or of contract swapping prior to retirement-benefits vesting.
FARM SUBSIDIES
Subsidies are payments, economic concessions, or privileges given by the government to favor businesses or consumers. In the 1930s, subsidies were designed to favor agriculture. John Steinbeck expressed his dislike of the farm subsidy system of the United States in his book, The Grapes of Wrath. In that book, the government gave money to farms so that they would grow and sell a certain amount of crops. As a result, Steinbeck argued, many people starved unnecessarily. Steinbeck examined farm subsidies from a personal level, showing how they hurt the common man. Subsidies have a variety of other problems, both on the micro and macro level that should not be ignored. Despite their benefits, farm subsidies are an inefficient and dysfunctional part of our economic system.
The problems of the American farmer arose in the 1920s, and various methods were introduced to help solve them. The United States still disagrees on how to solve the continuing problem of agricultural overproduction. In 1916, the number of people living on farms was at its maximum at 32,530,000. Most of these farms were relatively small . Technological advances in the 1920's brought a variety of effects. The use of machinery increased productivity while reducing the need for as many farm laborers. The industrial boom of the 1920s drew many workers off the farm and into the cities. Machinery, while increasing productivity, was very expensive.
Demand for food, though, stayed relatively constant. As a result of this, food prices went down. The small farmer was no longer able to compete, lacking the capital to buy productive machinery. Small farms lost their practicality, and many farmers were forced to consolidate to compete. Fewer, larger farms resulted . During the Depression, unemployment grew while income shrank. "An extended drought had aggravated the farm problem during the 1930s ." Congress, to counter this, passed price support legislation to assure a profit to the farmers. The Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 allowed the government to limit acreage use for certain soil-depleting crops.
The Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937 allowed the government to set the minimum price and amount sold of a good at the market. The Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, farmers were given price supports for not growing crops. These allowed farmers to mechanize, which was necessary because of the scarcity of farm labor during World War II . During World War II, demand for food increased, and farmers enjoyed a period of general prosperity . In 1965, the government reduced surplus by getting farmers to set aside land for soil conservation . The Agricultural Act of 1970 gave direct payments to farmers to set aside some of their land . The 1973 farm bill lowered aid to farmers by lowering the target income for price supports. The 1970s were good years for farmers. Wheat and corn prices ripled, land prices doubled, and farm exports outstripped imports by twenty-four billion dollars .
Under the Carter administration, farm support was minimized. Competition from foreign markets, like Argentina, lowered prices and incomes . Ronald Reagan wanted to wean the farm community from government support. Later on in his administration, though, he started the Payments In Kind policy, in which the government paid farmers not to grow major crops. Despite these various efforts, farms continue to deal with the problems that rose in the 1920s. Farm subsidies seem to have benefits for the small farmer. "Each year since 1947, there has been a net out-migration of farm people ." American farm production has tripled since 1910 while employment has fallen eighty percent . Small family farms have the lowest total family incomes . Farming is following a trend from many small farms to a few large farms. Competition among farmers has increased supply faster than demand. New seed varieties, better pest control, productive machinery, public investments in irrigation and transportation, and better management will increase farm output.
INDIAN ECONOMY
India is located in the southern part of Asia and is also south of the Himalayan Mountains. This southern peninsula has the largest mineral deposits and the largest cultivable land in the continent. The population of India is critically large and although nearly all people are Hindu, some are of other religious denominations. The life of the Indian people is usually ruled by their caste system, but the system is not as firm as it was years ago. India has a mixed economy. The different elements of India, such as location, resources, and religious beliefs, mold the outcome of their economy. In the area that India is geographically located, the climate varies from tropical to extreme frigid temperatures. In the area closest to the mountains extreme temperature should be expected. The northern plains have heavy snowfalls.
The northeastern part of India has a cool monsoon season from early December throughout February. A monsoon is a wind system that produces wet or dry seasons. If there are severe droughts, famines can result from it. On the other hand, too much rain can cause malaria. Also, the contradictory temperature of the northern days and nights fortify pulmonary disorders. The annual amount of precipitation along the southern slopes of the Himalayas is 60 inches. There is also a hot/dry season that begins in the middle of March until the beginning of July. During this time the Himalayan area has had temperatures of about 120 F. Calcutta, which is a city east the Himalayan mountains, has an average daily temperature of 55 F to 80 F during the month of January and 79 F to 89 F in July. The other areas of India, the southern and western parts usually have a tropical climate. They also have monsoons, but are referred to as the dry or wet seasons. These monsoons control the temperature, rainfall and humidity. The wet or rainy season is from June through September. Winds blow from the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea.
The rain can be overwhelming and is typically 125 inches during this season. The Cherrapunji in the Khasi Hills has a yearly rainfall of about 425 inches. In Bombay, which is located in the west central part of India, have temperatures of 67° F to 83° F in January and 77° F to 85° F in July. With the different temperatures, natural resources can flourish or degenerate. India has many large cultivable regions, and numerable timber access. India’s agriculture worth is one-third of the annual gross domestic product (GDP). The farms are usually humble and owned by families. The crops that are mostly cultivated for domestic proposes are rice, wheat, cotton, tea and jute, which is a plant that gives a fiber which can be made into sacking and cordage. India is responsible for a large amount of exports to the world. Sugar production a year during the early 1990’s was 230 million metric tons. The annual production of tea was 743,000 tons. Rice was 72.6 million tons and wheat was 56.8 millions tons. Cotton was at 2.0 million and jute was at 1.4 million tons. Other agricultural products that are sold as exports are cashews, coffee, spices, barley, chickpeas, bananas, rubber, melons, vegetables, corn, sorghum, linseed, millet and mangoes. The timber in India is not varied, but is resourceful. In the Himalayan region, the cedar, pine, oak and magnolia trees are abundant.
In the slopes if the Western Ghats, were there is heavy rainfall which give a home to evergreens, bamboo, teak, and other timber trees. In the southeastern part, the mangrove and the sal are very common. These two trees are hardwood timber. Other resources include fishing, mining, and manufacturing. The fish, forestry mining and manufacturing, that are of economic significance contribute to the Gross Domestic Products. Shrimps and prawns, India oil sardines, ducks, croakers, Bombay, Indian mackerel, anchovies and marine catfish are the sea life that Indian people consume. Even though the fishing industry is underdeveloped when compared to other fishing industries, it is a vital tool for the people. In the Ganges delta in Bengal it most important. The government has encouraged deep-sea fishing by constructing processing plants and paying for fleets and vessels going to the ocean. 59% of the country’s 4.2 million annual catch in the early 1990’s was made of the marine species. 23% of the total land area in India of made up of forestlands. The regions bordering, the Himalayas are the largest source for commercial forestry. The annual timber harvest was 9.9 billion cubic feet in the early 1990’s. The mining industry thrives on Iron ore, coal, mica, dolomite, copper, bauxite, petroleum, natural gas, zinc, lead, chromium, limestone, phosphate rock, silver, and gold. India is among the world leaders who produce iron ore, coal, and bauxite. The other elements mentioned above are also produced significantly. The annual production during the early 1990’s for iron ore was 53.7 million metric tons, for coal it was 247.3 million, for bauxite it was 5 million, for manganese 1.8 million, and zinc 181,00. Three-fifths of the annual production of petroleum is for India’s consumption. The products that India manufacture are textiles, iron and steel, machinery, processed agricultural products, fertilizer, transportation equipment, nonferrous metals, refined petroleum, chemicals, and computer software. Unfortunately employment in these areas has declined. About 67% in Agriculture, Forestry and fishing and 20% of employment has gone down in services, such as transportation and communication.
INTERNET AND ECONOMY
The internet, the world wide data connection that has caught on like a wild fire sweeping through a parched California forest, has wide ranging implications on our world economy. Locally, we have witnessed staggering swings of fortune in more “dot-com” firms than any other form of business in American history. The old adage of that “American Dream” - starting a business in the garage to see it one day be listed on the stock exchange is truer now than at any other time in our short history as well. While many still feel that the internet is simply a “fad” that will fade out as consumers tire of on-line shopping, most are resigned to the fact that the computer age is finally found a foothold into the masses – a true consumer product as inseparable in the modern household as the television and telephone.
The fact that it isn’t being called the “telenet” may be more a matter of poor timing than a marketing gaffe. As the data-stream becomes more efficient – read that as “fast,” other uses of the internet will boom. No longer will the internet be just for buying and selling merchandise, chatting with friends and family, or gaining insight into the latest sexual technique, but will become a truly real-time and practical “multi-media” tool. Video data, currently suited only for the occasional voyeuristic views with choppy, grainy images reminiscent of our parents/grandparents 8mm movies, will one day become a window to the world. The video phone – a product most of us in my age group thought would have become reality long before now - will finally become commonplace.
With video, audio and other input devices at one’s disposal, doctor’s will again make “house calls,” and visits to far off friends and relatives will nearly suffice for the real thing . The uses are nearly as endless as ones imagination, and is a field where current state-of-the-art has only touched the surface of what can and will be achieved over a very short period of time. So what does all this high tech wizardry have to do with the economy? Just about everything, actually.
Already governments across the globe are clamoring to be the first to find a practical method of taxation into this new world wide interchange system. Hopefully, the Genie has long since been out of the bottle on that one… Shopping malls, already feeling the effects of internet commerce, may be forced to radically change their business structure or face certain failure. The parcel delivery systems are feeling the effects as well as a dramatic increase of flow is being realized directly through internet sales. As fuel prices continue to climb, video conferencing, once reserved for the well-healed companies will make sense for even the smallest of companies. The ramifications of the internet are wide ranging and will certainly impact nearly every human being on the face of this planet. What a marvelous time to be living in to see one of the single biggest technological advances come to fruition. While the telephone made the world a much smaller place to live in, the internet has taken the meaning of distance out of the equation completely.
MODERN TECHNOLOGY
In an era where human progress is soaring at a dizzying rate, society must adapt its technology to solve current world issues. In a world where the Internet, cell phones and notebook computers are becoming a necessity for everyday living, we often forget about those who still suffer attempting to meet their basic needs, including clean water, food and health care. It is time for the developed world to use their technology to help those who can not help themselves. By using these technologies there will be advances in medical services, a new economy based on the Internet, emerging information technologies and new methods for the farming and industrial sectors.
More importantly, these technologies will provide the education and knowledge for these people to become prosperous nations that can fend for themselves and provide for their people. Transfers of technology from the developed world to the developing world will improve the standard of living, increase efficiency in production and become a base for economic growth, without this transfer these countries will fall further into poverty and economic ruin, with little hope for survival. For most people of the developed world, the developing world is not something they concern themselves with; they do not see it everyday and therefore it does not exist. This could not be farther from the truth. The developing world is in need of help but the developed world constantly turns a blind eye.
Our current love affair with technology may provide the answer for underdeveloped nations problems. The standard of living is so low in these countries that our everyday conveniences are a struggle for the entire population to obtain. If the developed nations could meet these base needs, these countries may be able to overcome their current problems. The first issue that must be dealt with is the unsatisfactory health care and medical technology. If the developed world could send excess medical supplies along with the personnel to administer them, they might learn to take care of themselves. In time, the common diseases that kill thousands in these countries will be under control and people will start living longer, healthier lives.
A second issue is the exchange of technology for agriculture and industry. As a result, new jobs will be created to provide income, while reducing child labor. As the people of these countries start to build income for themselves, the amount of crime will be reduced as people will be able to afford to meet their basic needs. As an example, instead of having to steal or beg for food or clothing, they would be able to purchase them; thus reducing crime and increase economic growth. The case study of China completed in class, showed that as people became educated and more career oriented, the size of families decreased thus reducing overpopulation. This occurs for two main reasons, people will not have time for a family and less children are required for the work force.
With overpopulation and the rate of natural increase under control the standard of living in these countries will increase. With just a small jumpstart from the developing world, developing countries will experience a chain reaction that will increase their standard of living. This chain will start with improved medicine to increase life expectancy, followed by new jobs that will bring income and finally education that will reduce overpopulation and crime. All of these factors resulting from technological transfers will lead to an overall increase in living standard. In the corporate world of North America, it has never been easier to start a business or company. Using modern technology such and the Internet and a computer, an individual or group of individuals can become major players in today's ever increasing electronic economy. As the overall cost of doing business drops, it will make "the technology more rapidly available, at a decreased cost" and therefore level the economic playing field.
PRODUCTION DISTRIBUTION
There are several factors that influence the growth and distribution of a particular regions primary industries. These primary industries, are necessary for an economy to grow. Without a primary industry, which could also be called natural resources, secondary, tertiary and quaternary industries would struggle in a country .These factors also affect where people live. If you were at a warm place, near the coast, it is a lot more populated, than interior America. This population, affects your labor and markets. With a good geography, cash crops may be able to grow in the region developing a farm industry. There are several factors that affect a region’s natural resources. These factors are landscape features, temperature and precipitation. Landscape features affect the economy.
Some landscape features that range all over the United States are tundra and mountains. If you were describe the Arctic Coastal Plain, you would have to mention the permafrost. In the Pacific ranges and coastal lowlands, the soil is rich and fertile. The soil in a region determine if you’re able to grow cash crops or nothing. The temperature of a region affects the economy. In a place that is warm and humid, certain crops, will be able to grow in that region. The temperature can also affect the settlement patterns of people. Larger populations tend to settle in a place with a high temperature.
To get an precise picture of an area’s climate, two temperatures are required. These are the average temperatures of the months January and July. There are three factors that affect the this result. The closer you are to the equator, usually the warmer it is. This is because the sun rays are more concentrated and direct the closer you are to the equator. The more direct the sun’s rays are, the greater heating ability. During the winter, oceans maintain much more heat than land, and release this heat slowly. Land near an ocean, is warmer than land not near an ocean because the ocean retains the heat. When the sun shines, the heat bounces off, but can’t reach the atmosphere. The heat in the air comes from the warm surface, so air closer to the ground is usually warmer. As altitude increases, air temperature decreases. This decline in air temperature is known as the lapse rate. Precipitation can also affect the economy.
In a place that is humid, certain crops, will be able to grow in that region. The precipitation can also affect the settlement patterns of people. Larger populations tend to settle in a place with a high precipitation. Precipitation is all forms of moisture falling on the ground. Vegetation is the type grasses, trees, shrubs that grow in a region. The vegetation in a region depends upon the rainfall, temperature, and the physical relief of the landscape. It is a representation of all the other factors of the physical geography of an area. The vegetation can develop a lumber industry.. The vegetation growing in a region can also reflect the farming potential of that region. If the vegetation is very tropical than that shows that the region is a good place to farm. Landscape features, temperature, precipitation and vegetation influence the growth and distribution of a particular regions primary industries. These primary industries are necessary for an economy to grow. Soil and the type of land affect what type of crops are able to grow in that region.
Temperature and precipitation, both affect the primary industries and economy. In a place that is warm and humid, certain crops, will be able to grow in that region. The temperature and precipitation can also affect the settlement patterns of people. Larger populations tend to settle in a place with a high temperature and precipitation. Vegetation is a representation of all the other factors of the physical geography of an area. Vegetation can affect the lumber and agriculture industry. All these four factors have one thing in common. All these factors, landscape features, temperature, precipitation and vegetation affect the primary industries and the economy.
STOCK MARKET AND TECHNOLOGY
The purpose of this research paper is to prove that technology has been good for the stock market. Thanks to technology, there are now more traders than ever because of the ease of trading online with firms such as Auditrade and Ameritrade. There are also more stocks that are doing well because they are in the technology field. The New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ have both benefitted from the recent technological movement. The NYSE says they “are dedicated to maintaining the most efficient and technologically advanced marketplace in the world.” The key to that leadership has been the state-of-the-art technology and systems development. Technology serves to support and enhance the human judgement at point-of-sale. NASDAQ, the world’s first fully electronic stock market, started trading on February 8th, 1971.
Today, it is the fastest growing stock market in the United States. It also ranks second among the world’s securities in terms of dollar value. By constantly evolving to meet the changing needs of investors and public companies, NASDAQ has achieved more than almost any other market, in a shorter period of time. Technology has also helped investors buy stocks in other markets. Markets used to open at standard local times. This would cause an American trader to sleep through the majority of a Japanese trading day. With more online and afterhours trading, investors have more access to markets so that American traders can still trade Japanese stocks. This is also helped by an expansion of most market times. After hours trading is available from most online trading firms. For investing specialists, technology provides operational capability for handling more stocks and greatly increased volumes of trading.
Specialists can follow additional sources of market information, and multiple trading and post-trade functions, all on “one screen” at work or at home. They are also given interfaces to “upstairs” risk-management systems. They also have flexibility to rearrange their physical workspaces, terminals and functional activities. Floor brokers are helped with supports for an industry-wide effort to compare buy/sell contracts for accuracy shortly after the trade. They are also given flexibility in establishing working relationships using the new wireless voice headsets and hand-held data terminals. The ability to provide new and enhanced information services to their trading desks and institutional customers is provided. They have a comprehensive order-management system, that systematizes and tracks all outstanding orders.
Technology gives a market’s member organizations flexibility in determining how to staff their trading floor operations as well as flexibility in using that market’s provided systems, networks and terminals or interfacing their own technology. They are given assurance that their market will have the systems capacity and trading floor operations to handle daily trading and in billions of shares. Member organizations get faster order handling and associated reports to their customers, along with speedier and enhanced market information. They also have a regulatory environment, which assures member organizations that their customers, large and small, can trade with confidence. Technology also allows lower costs, despite increasing volumes and enhanced products. Companies listed on the NYSE are provided with an electronic link so they may analyze daily trading in their stock, and compare market performance during various time periods. The technology also supports the visibility of operations and information, and regulated auction-market procedures, which listed companies expect from their “primary” market in support of their capital-raising activities and their shareholder services.
Institutions get enhanced information flow from the trading floor, using new wireless technologies, as to pre-opening situations, depth of market, and indications of buy/sell interest by other large traders. Also supported are the fair, orderly, and deeply liquid markets which institutions require in order to allocate the funds they have under management whether placing orders in size for individual stocks or executing programs. For institutional investors, technology gives information on timely trades and quotes and makes them available through member firms, market data services, cable broadcasts and news media. They also are provided with a very effective way of handling “smaller” orders, giving them communications priority and full auction market participation for “price improvement” yet turning the average market order around in 22 seconds.
WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION
The World Trade Organization (WTO) was formed on January 1, 1995, as successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which had regulated tariffs worldwide since 1947. The WTO regulates tariffs on services, intellectual property, food, and government purchasing. The Clinton administration has been working very hard to negotiate a deal with China, a nation we have given ‘Most Favored Nation' status to, to enter into the World Trade Organization. After a long negotiation process, we have reached a deal with China. The conditions of the deal require China to open its markets to a wide range of US products and services and to permit increased investment in China by US firms. Of course the agreement has to be passed by Congress, which is bound to create a lively debate on the matter.
US Commerce Secretary, William Daley, is trying to convince America that this deal with China is critical to their pocketbooks. He says, "If you enjoy this economic success we are participating in, this is an important piece of its future." I have a hard time seeing how things will change if China is admitted to the WTO. We already trade a great deal with China and have given them ‘Most Favored Nation' status already. I think there are several reasons why we should not let China into the WTO. There are several political risks involved with this deal with China. Organized labor and environmental groups are using this deal to somehow introduce environmental conditions and labor rights into the WTO rules.
Although they are in opposition to the deal right now, they will construct a bargain in which they will trade their support of Chinese membership for the rules to be added. Chinese membership is also a great risk for China. The increased imports from the United States and other countries and the production in China by foreign firms will provide strong competition to many of the state-owned industries. I think this will force many Chinese businesses to close down. The only other solution would be to cut back on workers at these companies, which would increase the unemployment rate in China. The resulting rise in unemployment can hurt their economy and cost them a lot of money. The last and perhaps most important issue in this debate is over China's human rights and labor standards.
China is a communist country, which is something Americans seem to completely disagree with. If I recall, Little Elian from Cuba is stuck in the middle of a debate over whether we should send him back to his country because it is Communist and we are so against that form of government. If we are so appalled by Communism, why do we want to give ‘Most favored nation' status to one of the few remaining Communist countries? That is why we have an embargo on Cuba. When China is ready to take steps forward in human rights and labor standards, then we can talk about trade agreements.
Synergy Productivity Training
Synergy productivity training focuses on improving productivity throughout your company. The productivity training we provide consists of three main components: Improving personal productivity through improved time management skills. Improving company productivity through establishing management priorities. Improving field services productivity through adopting new technology Personal Productivity Training Seminar Synergy provides a half-day personal productivity training seminar for all of your company’s employees.
This seminar has received national recognition for its effectiveness. This seminar improves employees’ individual performance by maximizing their personal effectiveness in setting immediate and long range goals and in prioritizing personal tasks. As part of this personal productivity training seminar, each employee in attendance at the seminar receives a customized personal log containing planning sheets for recording events and managing daily activities. This personal log standardizes the method by which all of your employees organize and control events, improving their productivity and, at the same time, increasing your company’s ability to bid contracts and bill clients.
Management Productivity Training Synergy provides management training at our Leadership Retreat facilities at Garrison Lake, New York. As a result of this training, management will be able to create more effective relationships with the employees they supervise. This two-day training, focuses on helping company officials work together to identify your company’s own unique mission statement, guiding principles for each division, and personal role-based tasks
Field Services Technology and Training Synergy provides 30 hours of free on-site training and 6 months of free on-line consultation services. After 6 months, training and consultation are provided on a contractual basis. Synergy’s advanced technology system improves your communication field services. Our phone-fax-computer system connects your managers through e-mail, fax, and telephone to establish better communication throughout your company and to simplify procedures, streamline red tape, and eliminate bureaucracy.
COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS
Improving personal communications is very important to today in the fast moving world. The communication process is very important, it is estmated that 80 percent of messages get deport” For better results replace “You statements” with “I statements.” Say I’m concerned...That will bring the person off of the defensive approch. Also discuss things as they happen with out waitng. When you wait things can be losted or forgotten. If you work them out early it will be much easier for you and the other person. Select the right time and place to discuss something. So that person has your full attention.
The communication process is very important, it is estmated that 80 percent of messages get distorted or lost. Impersonal communication is not always the right way to speak with people. This would be fax, e-mail, bulliton board, voice mail and manuals etc. Interpersonal communications is a verbal exchange of thoughts or information between two or more people, and through this it allows people to give feedback on what they have to say or ideas they would like to share.
If a CEO, comes into a busniess meeting and starts yelling and gives everyone a real big attitude. The people who have to come up with ideas aren’t going to say much. If they have an idea they will probably won’t say it at all. That also falls into Attitudes. When working in a company you have to find a role. What I mean by a role is you have to find a common ground of what you have to get done and do it. There will be some gender bias in every company or work place, you just need to find something you like and stick to it. Nonverbal Messages play a huge part. Example if you are the boss and someone is trying to give you an idea they came up with and you are not giving them eye contact, a dirty facial expression, and uncomfotable gestures. The person will feel that you could careless. When in a work enviroment everyone needs some kind of personal space. When provided personal space people work better and easier and more relaxed. When talking to someone send clear messages try to keep out all the filters. So people won’t be misunderstood. Use words carefully, example use words that are simple, clear and cannot be mistaken. Use repetion when possible send the people an e-mail or leave a message, that will get there attention.
Develop listening skill, everytime you talk with someone you’re working on listening skills. Apply that to the next person. Active listening you’re seeing and listening to what they have to say. Empathic listening is good to a company becuase it gives a employee someone to talk to too about personal problems. Here’s some steps - Avoid being judgmental, accept what is said, be patient. This will help a company in a big way. You want to create a climate that encourages upward communication. Have the people below at the bottom give ideas and participate in some meets. High Tech communication is a big part on keeping in touch with employees “virual offices”, “Telecommuting”, and “E-mail.”
IT TECHNOLOGY
The successful company will be driven to increase stakeholder value and profitability while creating a working environment that encourages and nurtures the growth of personal creativity and development as well as nurturing a sense of well-being for all members of the organization. When dealing with the forces that drive industry competition, a company can devise a strategy that takes the offensive. This posture is designed to do more than merely cope with the forces themselves; it is meant to alter their causes. The IT professional's role in competitive market intelligence The IT professional is increasingly being called upon to be a sleuth in the quest for the competitive market intelligence that is so necessary to support the enterprise's overall business strategy. In today's fast-changing marketplace, it is essential to monitor the techniques of similar businesses, and IT is being called upon to fulfill that functional need. IT must provide marketing with answers to vital questions such as: 1. How are competitors getting business? 2. Where does the enterprise look for new customers? 3. How are prospects targeted? 4. What services, products, and prices do competitors offer? 5. What images do our competitors project, and how does that compare to our image?
The combined strength of marketing and IT Enterprises have depended on marketing for too long to provide competitive intelligence. It is crucial for IT professionals to contribute their specialized expertise to successfully adapt to the changing dynamics of the market arena. Marketing cannot do the job without the cooperation, tools, and willing support of the IT department. With the combined strength of the two complementary functions, a winning competitive market intelligence program is within the enterprise's reach. Useful and sometimes surprising insights can be gained from exploring the terrain of actual and potential competitors. Hardly an academic exercise, sizing up the competition should become an ongoing, regular, and systematic process of gathering, analyzing, and acting upon relevant data, which will provide It will reveal the steps that·businesses with two tangible benefits: It will signal new market·management must take to preempt competitive strikes. opportunities.
Competitive monitoring enables management to develop practical strategies and measure the success of their actions. What you should know Simply knowing who your competitors are is not enough; you should also ferret out what their strategies and objectives are. You can gauge their strengths and weaknesses by learning about their products and services (current and new), pricing, features, and the level of customer satisfaction. How are your products or services positioned relative to the competition? Do your customers and prospects see your service as having the highest quality and still selling at the lower price? Is your product viewed as the low-cost brand, the premium-priced brand, the old standby, or the leader? After getting some comments, it may still be neither possible nor desirable to change your service's features. Instead, research could point out what to communicate and how to communicate to your market. For example, you could tell your marketing department what potential customers are looking for and highlight the features that are valued by your customers.
Your information will enable the marketing people to create materials that tell customers what they want to hear and sell them what they want to buy. Differences can be subtle but they really do matter. Are yesterday's customers and clients being lured away by today's competition? Are they being tempted by the competition's siren song? Are they saying yes to your rival's lower fees or discounts? Are they buying new products or services that your company has not even thought of offering? Who will provide the answers? IT can, at the very least, provide meaningful data to formulate the correct solutions. Potential market threats While management understands the importance of keeping an eye on the competition, some members of management mistakenly believe that the marketing department alone has the resources to do a proper job. This is simply not true. Much valuable information exists in the database mines of the IT function. The IT professional must do some of the digging in those mines to find it. Most IT professionals are already in an excellent position to obtain and use primary competitive information and need only the encouragement or permission of management. Frequently, IT has become the central repository for this kind of competitive analysis information. However, using the information can be a challenge when different departments within the company engage in territorial squabbles, and the company is forced to dilute valuable resources through unnecessary duplications of effort. In such situations, management must educate all departments to funnel customer and prospect data back to a central IT point.
Financial Reporting
On September 28, 1998, Chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Arthur Levitt sounded the call to arms in the financial community. Levitt asked for, "immediate and coordinated action… to assure credibility and transparency" of financial reporting. Levitt’s speech emphasized the importance of clear financial reporting to those gathered at New York University. Reporting which has bowed to the pressures and tricks of earnings management. Levitt specifically addresses five of the most popular tricks used by firms to smooth earnings. Secondly, Levitt outlines an eight part action plan to recover the integrity of financial reporting in the U.S. market place. What are the basic objectives of financial reporting? Generally accepted accounting principles provide information that identifies, measures, and communicates financial information about economic entities to reasonably knowledgeable users.
Information that is a source of decision making for a wide array of users, most importantly, by investors and creditors. Investors and creditors who are responsible for effective allocation of capital in our economy. If financial reporting becomes obscure and indecipherable, society loses the benefits of effective capital allocation. Nothing illustrates the importance of transparent information better than the pre-1930’s era of anything goes accounting. An era that left a chasm of misinformation in the market. A chasm that was a contributing factor to the market collapse of 1929 and the years of economic depression. An entire society suffered the repercussions of misinformation. Families, and retirees depend on the credibility of financial reporting for their futures and livelihoods. Levitt describes financial reporting as, a bond between the company and the investor which if damaged can have disastrous, long-lasting consequences. Once again, the bond is being tested. Tested by a financial community fixated on consensus earnings estimates.
The pressure to achieve consensus estimates has never been so intense. The market demands consistency and punishes those who come up short. Eric Benhamou, former CEO of 3COM Corporation, learned this hard lesson over a few short weeks in 1996. Benhamou and shareholders lost 7 billion dollar in market value when 3COM failed to achieve expectations. The pressures are a tangled web of expectations, and conflicts of interest which Levitt describes as "almost self-perpetuating." With pressures mounting, the answer from U.S. managers has been earnings management with a mix of managed expectations. March of 1997 Fortune magazine reported that for an unprecedented sixteen consecutive quarters, more S&P 500 companies have beat the consensus earnings estimate than missed them. The sign of a quickly growing economy and a measure of the importance the market has placed on consensus earnings estimates.
The singular emphasis on earnings growth by investors has opened the door to earnings management solutions. Solutions that are further being reinforced to managers by market forces and compensation plans. Primarily, managers jobs depend on their ability to build stockholder equity, and ever more importantly their own compensation. A growing number of CEO’s are recieving greater percentages of their compensation as stock options. A very personal incentive for executive achievement of consensus earnings estimates. Companies are not the only ones to feel the squeeze. Analysts are being pressured by large institutional investors and companies seeking to manage expectations. Everyone is seeking the win. Auditors are being accused of being out to lunch, with the clients. Many accounting firms are coming under scrutiny as some of their clients are being investigated by the SEC for irregularities in their practice of accounting.
Marketing Plan
Components of the Marketing Plan I. Situation Analysis: Where are we now? A. Historical Background The coffee tree is native to Ethiopia. From there it spread throughout the Middle East. Until the 17th Century all the coffee of commerce came from Arabia. Slowly, the efforts of Dutch merchants spread cultivation to the East Indies. Coffee cultivation began in the Americas in the early 1700’s. Most of the coffee trees of the Western Hemisphere are said to be descended from a single plant. It was carried from a botanical garden in France to the island of Martinique in the West Indies by Capt. Gabriel Mathieu de Clieu, a young military officer. He kept the tree alive during an arduous voyage by sharing with it his limited ration of drinking water.
Coffee cultivation spread quickly through the West Indies in the next few years. Coffee was the first grown in Brazil in 1729. Brazilian coffee exports achieved importance by 1809, and since the mid-1800’s Brazil has by a considerable margin been the world’s leading coffee rowing nation. Between 1850 and 1900 other Latin American nations developed extensive coffee plantations. Commercial coffee growing began in central Africa about 1900. Africa, however, became a major source of coffee only in the period following World War II. The origin of man’s use of coffee is lost in the timeless legends of the Middle East. One of the most appealing relates that some monks, after observing the liveliness of sheep which had eaten coffee cherries, began to eat the cherries to help keep themselves awake through long nights of prayer.
Consumption of coffee probably began by the 6th century AD. A reference to coffee appears in a medical manuscript of AS 900. It was first used as a food, as a medicine, and as an ingredient in wine. Coffee as a beverage similar to that of today - a water extracted of roasted beans - appeared around 1300. In the middle political discussion. Rulers periodically attempted to suppress them; King Charles II of England termed coffeehouses "seminaries of sedition." When it became known that roasting coffee beans brought out their flavor, roasted beans were crushed, boiled in water, and then consumed grounds and all. Spices were often added to the brew. In Egypt soon after 1600, sugar was added to cut the bitterness of coffee. The use of milk became common in the late 1600’s. In Scandinavia and colonial America, eggs were added to reduce bitterness. Espresso, which is brewed by forcing steam through finely ground darkly roasted coffee beans, became popular in the 1940’s. It was the main beverage served in the coffeehouse that began to flourish near college campuses. Again the centers of literary and political discussions, as well as poetry and folksinging , coffeehouse were favorite spots for the beatniks and hippies of the 1950’s and 1960’s. B. Consumer Analysis Bad Ass Coffee Company products are attempting to serve the serious coffee drinkers out there. We are trying to focus of course on the older generation as well as the younger generation of coffee drinkers in the United States today.
We want to try and aim our coffee more toward the younger generation of coffee drinkers since more and more young adults are starting to drink coffee. a. The Bad Ass Coffee Company distribution channel can be segmented into 4 categories. · Independent retailers · Supermarkets · Mass Merchandisers · Our personal market customers b. Bad Ass Coffee Company will be targeting the independent retailers as well as the supermarkets and hope start our own brand name stores around the world. c. The people who would probably enjoy our products the most would most likely be the baby boomer type era. We would like to aim our products more toward the new generation of coffee drinkers to come. d. Kids and minorities are not really going to be targeted as much as the young adults but everyone will be recognized as a coffee drinker by our company. e. The serious coffee drinker buys an average of 5lbs of coffee a week. Our goal is to try and raise this average with the bad ass coffee name in every household.
Competitive Analysis. Some firms are forced to develop unique distribution channels because of inadequate promotion of their products by independent marketing intermediaries. Not Bad Ass Coffee Company, we add a direct sales force through selective distribution. We only sell our coffee to a limited number of retailers. In order to get Bad Ass Coffee you must got to one of our many coffee houses in the U.S. or order directly through us. Only a select few specialty stores carry our product. We want our coffee to be a delicacy .
ART AND COMMERCE
A Culture Still Cultured art n. the quality, production, expression, or realm, according to aesthetic principals, of what is beautiful, appealing, or of more than ordinary significance. –The Random House Dictionary “Josh, you just have to see the new GAP Khakis commercial!” proclaimed my excited brother. I even went as far as watching the same channel until I finally saw the commercial. I sat in front of the television for over a half an hour, and turned my head at the sound of catchy swing music to see young men and women dancing to music on a stark white backdrop. Their energy and enthusiasm to dance was like nothing I had seen in reality.
In all the twisting and tangling of arms, legs, and female hair, I froze in my seat as everyone on the dance floor froze in mid air. My heart stopped as I followed the camera around the frozen dancers. The new perception heightened the dancing energy. The GAP Khakis sign invaded the screen for a few seconds and the screen went blank. Was this the work of an evil genius trying to get my attention so that I could be brainwashed into buying a product? Could it perhaps be simply one artist communicating a new sense of beauty to the whole world, regardless of the product I was deeply affected by the strange time and space rendered in front of me in thirty seconds.
Commercial film affects me more than fine art in a museum does. It has also proven to be much better at portraying subtleties to a mass audience in a clear and definite way. People are ashamed of this comparative strength. Many of my self-fabricated intellectual friends claim to enjoy gallery fine art more than they enjoy movies and television. When we are at the gallery, I watch my friends ooh and aah at the work as they interpret its meaning amongst themselves. After dragging them cynically into the movie theater, they exit two hours later wiping their eyes off not wanting to say anything to anyone. Before the idea of mass-produced copies of art, people were starved for the kind of extraordinary visions we take for granted. They went to art shows and concerts. They valued their circuses and city zoos. After someone realized that the power of the extraordinarily beautiful could be very profitable, everything became consumerism. So, did all of this artistic talent disappear into thin air? Do bitter fine artists have reason to spit at an official for stifling the National Endowment for the Arts? The answer is in the advertisement.
Fine art appreciation may be a low priority to many Americans. I become uneasy when I hear someone say, “Art is dead in America!” The truth is that traditional art is dead in America. Did puritans sail the Atlantic ocean to settle here and be just like the people they broke away from? America’s having non-traditional art is a blessing to its original idea of constantly self reforming and exploring the possible new and better. America has a very thriving art form. Part of the reason why this art will never die is because people deny that it is art. The system is so engrained in our society that people are too ashamed to include it within the nomenclature of what they have been taught early on to see as inaccessible and foreign culture. That unique and strong art is renamed consumerism for its functional relationship to the economy. Very creative people in America work in show business and advertisement. The “fine art” continues to live underground to satisfy our nostalgia for the past, our need for small hors d’ouvres of diversity now and again, and as an important breeding ground for new ideas and approaches.
Photography And Art
For many years photography has been used to document the most significant of events, whether they affect an entire society, like a war, or a specific persons' life, such as a wedding. The reason that photography is used for such occasions instead of painting, drawing or sculpting is quite simple. It is because photography is the most remarkable of the fine arts. Other forms of art, are aesthetically pleasing and important in their own rite, but photography is so monumental because of the power that only it possesses. This is the power to depict fact. One aspect that makes photography so creditable is that it can show feeling and emotion so much more vividly and doubtlessly than a drawing can.
For instance, during the Great Depression "the harsh realities were recorded thanks to the initiative of the Farm Security Administration ." At this time, Dorothea Lange "documented the bitter poverty of migrant workers and their families. These images, such as Migrant Mother and Cotton Picker near Firebrough, show, so clearly and almost effortlessly, the pain and despair that was occurring too frequently at this time. There is a loss of hope that is so clear and evident in these photographs from the longing in the eyes of the images shown. Such raw emotion is hard to come by in any other art form.
Another reason photography is more trustworthy than other forms of art, is because the image that appears in a photograph, whether it is of a person or an event, has at one point existed or happened. This statement does not always hold true for paintings, sculptures, and drawings. It is simple and usual for an artist to conjure up an image of a person that has never existed and turn them into a work of art. For example, there has been a great deal of speculation about whether or not Leonardo Da Vinci's Mona Lisa is a portrait of a real person. Before the relatively recent technological advances, it was not possible to have a picture of a person or an incident that was fictitious.
A further example that photography is perceived as more realistic than other methods of art, is that it is possible for an artist to elaborate, emphasize, erase, or even completely change an image that they are trying to capture. Once again, preceding modern advances, this was not possible for a photographer to do. Based on this, and the preceding statement, throughout history viewers have been able to trust that the images they were seeing were genuine, and therefore were able to trust the realism of photographs. Over the years, photography came to be depended on for its ability to show factual images for the reasons stated earlier. Proof of this statement, is the great demand for photographs in magazines and newspapers. "The newspaper and newsmagazine depended on his pictures, even more than on the written word. They were an international language of communication, the one language needing no translation ." The rise of photojournalism made the public even more believing of photography and "the status of the photograph: from a document before, it now became evidence, irrefutable proof ."
Advertising
Advertising promotes more than mere products in our popular culture. Because images used in advertising are often idealized, they eventually set the standard which we in turn feel we must live up to. Advertisements serve to show us what the ideal image is, and further tell us how to obtain it. Advertisers essentially have the power to promote positive images or negative images. Unfortunately, most of the roles portrayed by women tend to fit the latter description. The irony lies therein since it is these negative images which have been most successful in selling products. It is easy to understand the appeal which these ads hold for men, as they place women in an inferior role; one characterized by helplessness, fragility and vulnerability.
Certainly one can not deny that visual images serve to create the ideal female beauty within the material realm of consumer culture. The problem is that if one strays from this ideal, there's the risk of not being accepted by men. Advertisers, by setting ideals, not only sell their products, but in fact reaffirm traditional gender roles in mainstream America. Women portrayed in sexual ads are depicted as objects and commodities, to be consumed by men for visual pleasure and by women for self-definition. Any depiction of a woman in scant clothing ultimately makes her look vulnerable and powerless, especially when placed next to a physically stronger man.
Studies show that advertisements will concentrate primarily on a woman's body parts rather than her facial expressions. Also, it was proven that over 50% of commercials portraying women contained at least one camera shot focusing on her chest. Men enjoy these images, and sadly, women tend to try to embody them, regardless of the extent to which they degrade themselves. Perhaps one of the most recent, successful, and controversial ad campaigns of the nineties is that of Calvin Klein. Ironically, in contrast to the normal, objectifying advertisements that deface women altogether, Klein focuses on his model's expressions. However, these expressions are similar to those of a scared child. The naked female model in turn looks even more vulnerable than when she was faceless. Here, in this ad Kate Moss is depicted as an innocent scared child. Her fingers touch her lips as if she is not permitted to speak, while her eyes look as if they are bruised. Moss' breast is exposed in this image, but instead of appearing voluptuous, Moss appears to be almost prepubescent. She stares vacantly and helplessly into the camera.
Again, women see these images as attractive to men and subsequently feel the need to embody them. Unfortunately, the body of Kate Moss is an unrealistic and unattainable ideal for most women. This distorted "ideal body image" is one of the leading causes for the recent rise of anorexia in young girls. The "waif" woman image is causing extreme low self-esteem for women in the nineties. The advertisement proves effective because normal women can never, and will never look like Kate Moss. All the hollow attempts will only bring more attention to these marketing strategies, and ultimately more business for Calvin Klein. It is difficult to pinpoint the cause for Klein's overwhelming success despite the nature of his advertisements.
Before Calvin Klein's waif image developed, it was thought that concentration on a woman's voluptuous physical features was what intrigued men. But this idea of Moss as a helpless child, with no real feminine curves at all, reiterates the argument that the male attraction to certain ads lies in the sexual power it gives them. Women please men in their nudity, their purity, and their body size. Women can never be happy with themselves until their representation in advertising become more reflective of reality. But if the ads become more realistic, then the advertisements aren't able to sell their self-help images. Essentially the world of morals and advertising, if the two can logically coexist, form a constant vicious cycle.
Banking Commission
"More than 70% of commercial bank assets are held by organizations that are supervised by at least two federal agencies; almost half attract the attention of three or four. Banks devote on average about 14% of their non-interest expense to complying with rules" . A fool can see that government waste has struck again. This tangled mess of regulation, among other things, increases costs and diffuses accountability for policy actions gone awry. The most effective remedy to correct this problem would be to consolidate most of the supervisory responsibilities of the regulatory agencies into one agency. This would reduce costs to both the government and the banks, and would allow the parts of the agencies not consolidated to concentrate on their primary tasks.
One such plan was introduced by Treasury Secretary Lloyd Bentsen in March of 1994. The plan called for folding, into a new independent federal agency , the regulatory portions of the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), the Federal Reserve Board, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), and the Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS). This plan would save the government 150 dollar to 200 million dollar a year. This would also allow the FDIC to concentrate on deposit insurance and the Fed to concentrate on monetary policy . Of course this is Washington, not The Land of Oz, so everyone can't be satisfied with this plan.
Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan and FDIC Chairman Ricki R. Tigert have been vocal opponents of the plan. Greenspan has four major complaints about the plan. First, divorced from the banks, the Fed would find it harder to forestall and deal with financial crises. Second, monetary policy would suffer because the Fed would have less access to review the banks. Thirdly, a supervisor with no macroeconomic concerns might be too inclined to discourage banks from taking risks, slowing the economy down. Lastly, creating a single regulator would do away with important checks and balances, in the process damaging state bank regulation . To answer these criticisms it is necessary to make clear what the Fed's job is. The Fed has three main responsibilities: to ensure financial stability, to implement monetary policy, and to oversee a smoothly functioning payments system .The responsibilities of the Fed are linked to the banking system. For the Fed to carry out its job it must have detailed knowledge of the working of banks and financial markets.
Central banks know from the experience of financial crises that regulatory and monetary policy directly influence each other. For example, a banking crises can disturb monetary policy, discouraging lending and destroying consumer confidence, they can also disrupt the ability to make or receive payments by check or to transfer funds. It is for these reasons that it is argued that the Fed must maintain a regulatory role with banks. The Treasury plan would leave the Fed some access to the review of banks. The Fed, which lends through its discount window and operates an interbank money transfer system, would have full access to bank examination data. Because regulatory policy affects monetary policy and systemic risk, it is necessary that the Fed have at least some jurisdiction. The Fed must be able to effectively deal with current policy concerns. The Banking Commission would be mainly concerned with the safety and stability of the banks. This would encourage conservative regulations, and could inhibit economic growth.
INTERNET BRAND DEVELOPMENT
Kellogg’s strategy was to produce a web site provided specific product line and brand information to interested consumers. The page displays particular product descriptions, nutrition information, and recipes. Provided as well are company contacts allowing direct consumer response. Corporation facts and financial statements are also available. The overall goal of these sites are to reinforce the brand images portrayed by the companies’ other advertisements, such as, television commercials, radio spots and print advertisement. Kellogg’s does this by posting additional information about its products. New products are promoted in this site to entice those familiar with the Kellogg’s name into trying new line extensions.
Parents, those with illnesses or allergies, and exercise enthusiasts will find nutritional information about their favorite products. The site is easy to navigate through and does not bombard the consumer with overwhelming amounts of information in a cluttered manner. The site is concise and allows the company’s messages to be readily absorbed. General Mills produced a web site that has an abundance of company information and hyperlinks to individual product and service pages. Its many product categories, line extensions and brand names allow the company to post diverse information in accordance with the different product positions. It also uses this web site to promote new products. The General Mills web site itself only posts company information, line extensions, news, and online shopping opportunities. The sight’s links give access to a variety of information.
Parents have the option to explore the Cheerios parent page and educators might be interested in the Box Tops for education program General Mills sponsors. Health conscious consumers would be attracted to Cheerios heart healthy news and kids may check out the "you rule your school" page. The information provided by this site is varying and a dispersed widely over many different web pages. This may be problematic for consumers who are not too familiar with surfing the net. Its broad layout may lead to confusion in finding or difficulty in discovering specific product information. Post Cereal’s web site displays health related question and answer forums, product line information, recipes and snack ideas for their cereals. Those looking for new and alternative uses for pre-existing brands.
Parents and house-wives may be those specifically targeted. It also attempts to enhance the image of the Post brand overall by providing historical information. This is in an attempt to distinguish the company as on that has established itself and also provides quality products. Those who produced this page may not have taken into consideration the possibility that loyal Post Purchasers may not know that Kraft is Post’s parent company and must go through Kraft’s web sight to access Post’s page. Breakfast cereal is a product that requires little involvement on behalf of the consumer. The customer knows likes and needs and bases his purchasing decisions of them. One consumer may like cereals with a lot of sugar while others may look for those high in fiber.
Marketing Management
"Marketing ideas have made singularly little penetration into the centres of influence of the construction industry. To some extent this follows from the character of the industry as an agglomeration of service organisations, not without structural relationship to one another, but serving a clientele from which individuals seek service very infrequently." Although times have and are changing the above statement despite being written over twenty five years ago is still to some extent very true. The subject of this assignment is a construction firm that has recently designed and implemented a marketing management strategy. The objective of this assignment is fourfold, firstly the company’s approach to marketing management will be documented this will then be related to marketing management theory Then by analysing data collected through research the effectiveness of the strategy will be discussed.
Finally using marketing management theory as a foundation recommendations will be made to identify where the initial strategy could be improved in order to promote future business development and success, in line with the strategic mission of the company. The organisation in question has strong foundations, since it’s incorporation in the mid fifties turnover has grown in line with inflation. In 1984 the Company was purchased by the son of the original managing director, he took up the role of new managing director. By the beginning of the 1990’s it became apparent that the company had reached a stage where it was no longer a small "hands-on" enterprise. The level of turnover and number of employees had increased at such a rate that the organisation now employed a sizeable management team. All with an experienced technical background in the fields of surveying, estimating or site management and who had either progressed through the ranks of this firm or other organisations of a similar size and nature. The company was at the time of the initial implementation of this initiative inexperienced in marketing management and strategy. However, the senior personnel realised the company had reached a stage where future business growth wasn’t just going to come from hard work, doing the job well and relying on a good reputation.
The view was taken that it was necessary to pursue new ventures to bring about growth and development. The Company has a large contracting portfolio with contracts completed for public and private clients in the commercial and industrial sectors. Appendix A shows the diversification with the selection of recently completed projects and list the clients for whom work has been carried out. The reason for a firm of this size carrying out such a wide range of activities is largely based on the belief that in such a competitive industry as construction it has been necessary to take on whatever type of work was available in order to maintain a consistent order book. In developing the company’s marketing management strategy numerous workshops were held, attending these were the company directors and two senior managers.
Information on the company was gained from interviews with the persons attending these workshops. There are many reasons for running a business, this company wanted to be clear on why it wanted to improve or introduce the marketing effort so that appropriate goals can be set. The aim of wanting to grow the business by increasing sales while at the same time sustaining the level of profit margin is the underlying factor in this case. Turnover could be increased very easily as most of the work is procured on an invitation to tender basis where the deciding factor is almost always price, however, "buying in" work will not necessary have a long term positive effect. The secondary objective was to secure profitable business relationships. These objectives are reflected in the mission statement in the appendix B. The development of the mission statement was the start of the company’s marketing management initiative. The company’s overall objective in the eye’s of the leaders was defined. It was thought the development of a mission statement would provide the foundation needed.
Business Computerization
The word ubiquitous means ever present or occurring everywhere. This term could be used to describe the use of the computer in the business. The business world’s benefit alone is enough to make a head spin. Every time a person goes to the grocery store, the bank, the local ATM, or even the neighborhood gym the benefit by the use of computers in modern society is unforeseen by most civilians. Many fields in business depend on the convenience, speed, accuracy, and reliability that computers have become known for. However all companies small and large benefit from the use of computers. First a company must research the impact computers will have on keeping track of there accounts. Then they must choose the correct hardware and software to best suit their particular needs, while at the same time making themselves familiar with the new enhancements that increase productivity. Finally, the company must allow time for installation and training.
When evaluating the need for a computerized system in a company one will also need to forecast the future demands of the company. After all to survive in the business world one must anticipate the future and not react to the past. How does one know when it is time to make the critical transition? It is when management finds itself unable to keep track of its business? Which products are profitable? Which are not? Which customers pay on time? Which are delinquent? Having easy access to this data is essential to running a healthy and competitive business. When the company has grown enough that management no longer has access to the data used to make informed decisions, then it is time to switch to a computerized data management system. These computerized data management systems are often called information systems.
The company now has two choices. It can either hire a professional consulting firm to help select and install the computer system, or venture out on its own to make these important decisions. Adequate planning is the most important step in assuring the successful use of computer technology. Most companies would be better off seeking the aid of a consulting firm. They are better informed on the different types of hardware and software that would best suit the computing needs. An outside firm is a better choice because they are less likely to make a costly mistake when choosing the new system. Another benefit to using a consulting firm would be there help in setting-up the procedures for using the new computer system and the necessary training to implement those procedures. Once the company has decided that they will benefit from computer enhancements it is then a matter of choosing which software and hardware at would be most useful.
Software is just another name for the programming that computers run on. It is the language that tells computers what to do. When choosing software it is important to, make sure to select the right number and combination of software “modules” to meet a company’s needs. The objective is to come up with an integrated system by selecting the modules important to the company. Here is an example of an integrated system. Say your employee sends a bill to customer. With manual systems one would have to post it three times to the sales journal, to a customer receivable account and to the general ledger. But with an integrated computer system one entry and the data will be posted automatically to all the appropriate files. There is an alternative to buying packaged software. A Company can have a custom program written. Custom programs are very expensive. Costing, up to 25,000 dollar more, depending on the number of modules one will buy. They are generally uneconomical and unnecessary. In most cases people are able to purchase pre-packaged software at a fraction of the cost of custom software. The software will then be able to handle up to 80% of the needs. Price is not the only consideration. Before one buys, find out what comes in a software package.
Computer Engineering
Computer technology has advanced dramatically over the past ten years. Technology has advanced from computers the size of a room that can only perform one particular task, to personal computers that will fit on a desk and perform multiple tasks. Understanding computers and their programs and being able to apply that knowledge is very important in today’s workplace. Engineering is a field that requires an extensive background in computer technology. Future engineers will benefit dramatically from having a strong background in computer technology. In order to understand why computers are important, we have to understand what a computer is and what it does. A computer is a device capable of performing a series of calculations or logical operations without human intervention. The computer is characterized by the number and complexity of operations it can perform and by its ability to process, store, and retrieve data .
The development of computers began in the 19th century by British mathematician Charles Babbage . Babbage designed, but did not build, a mechanical digital device capable of processing information as a modern computer does (4). In 1930 American scientist Vannevar Bush built a mechanically operated device, called a differential analyzer . It was the first general-purpose analog computer. Analog computers will be discussed later in this paper. The first information-processing digital computer actually built was the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Mark I computer (4). Completed in 1944, this electromechanical device was designed by American engineer Howard Aiken (5). In 1946 the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, or ENIAC, was put into operation (5). Using thousands of electron tubes, it was the first electronic digital computer. In the late 1950s transistors replaced electron tubes in computers, allowing a reduction in the size and power consumption of computer components (5). In the 1960s hybrid computers were tried that connected analog computers to digital ones. Later integrated circuits were developed that allowed further reduction in component size and increase in reliability.
The introduction of a relatively easy to use PC in 1981 began a period in the rapid growth of the computer industry. The computer industry is still thriving today with the introduction of faster processors such as the Pentium II and now the Pentium III, high tech printers, scanners, and of course the Internet. There are two types of computers, analog and digital. An analog computer is designed to process data in which the variable quantities vary continuously; it translates the relationships between the variables of a problem into analogous relationships between electrical quantities, such as current and voltage, and solves the original problem by solving the equivalent problem, or analog, that is set up in its electrical circuit . Because of this feature, analog computers are useful in the simulation and evaluation of certain complex situations. Analog computers do not play a role in engineering today, but without the introduction of analog computers PC’s would not be what they are today. Digital computers are referred to as PC’s. PC’s are used everyday in the workplace, at school, and at home.
Many programs can be accessed and loaded into a digital computer. Most technical jobs, including engineering, require experience and understanding of PC’s and the programs that are related to the field in which the PC is being used. A digital computer is designed to process data in numerical form; its circuits perform mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The numbers operated on by a digital computer are expressed in the binary system. Binary digits, which are also known as bits, are 0 and 1, so that 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, etc. correspond to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. A series of eight bits, called a “byte”, is the basic data unit of computers. A digital computer can store the results of its calculations for later use, can compare the results with other data, and on the basis of such comparisons can change the series of operations it performs .
Internet And Print Journalism
The differences between the Internet and Print Journalism are clear immediately upon glancing at either of the two. However, to truly understand the differences you must study each carefully. I will briefly explore the differences between Newsweek and it's printed counterpart, and Entrepreneur magazine vs. entrepreneurmag.com. These magazines are very different in content and supply good examples of different features that exist in a technological vs. a print environment. I will compare the differences between the two in three areas; Content ,. Advertising and. Useablity.
If you were to put any print magazine next to your computer monitor you would immediately notice a difference. A difference not only in the format the material is set up, but a difference in the actual content its' self. Newsweek is a magazine that delivers the news. One would assume that news is news, and if it is printed one way in the magazine it should be the same online. This is not true. Newsweek is a magazine that is released weekly, yet in e-commerce business moves at the "speed of thought" . This means that Newsweek must update their web site daily and sometimes hourly. This makes a magazine that would seemingly follow the same pattern, very different. News in print may not be the same as "e-news". Entrepreneur magazine is a magazine that helps the small businesses of America. They are very crafty in using bright colors that will grab potential buyers attention at the newsstand. This creates a problem for their online business. Whenever you have lots of colors or graphics your page will not load quickly. This means that what works in print will not work for their e- magazine. They have to rely on good spot graphics and headlines to attract attention. They do not do this very effectively. From looking at their web site you will see that they have had a hard time crossing over from print to the Internet.
Advertising is essential in both print and web business because it is a main source of income to any multi-media company. Newsweek sells pages and pages of ads in their magazine. These are well done color ads which are designed to attract the attention of the reader as they flip through the magazine. On the Internet site Newsweek chooses to place banner ads in the middle of the text page . The difference is that advertising on the Internet is much more personable. Thanks to little mechanisms called "cookies" the ads you see on the Internet site become personalized. These cookies tell a database sites to which you have previously logged on. In a fraction of a second you receive personal advertising that you never would have seen in a print ad. Entrepreneur does the same thing. You are receiving advertising that fits your wants and needs and all at a fraction of the cost to advertisers . This is an advertisers dream and is a noticeable difference between the two forms of media.
The term useablity seems to deal only with the Internet side of the two forms of media. This is a misconception. It is not uncommon to look for a certain story in a magazine in the table of contents. This is print useablity. Online useablity is undisputably better. Both sites have a type of search mechanism so that if you are looking for a story on Bill Gates you are not limited to one issue. This may be the greatest advantage in having an online version of a magazine. No longer is the user limited to the one issue recently purchased. Stories are at the users fingertips no matter when they were written. People have different views on what the roles of print magazines will be in contrast to online magazines in the future. Some magazine companies choose to downplay the Internet and the role it will take in regards to their industry. Neil Postman, a well known philosopher of New Media Technologies states that "when we begin relying on the Internet for all of our news and information we will turn into a nation of zombies". I think that Bill Gates and many others would disagree. The differences are great and companies must adapt to those differences in order to be successful.
Internet In Business
Access to the Internet is rapidly becoming a necessity in today’s business environment. Internet access at my business enables workers to perform a wide variety of tasks, from seeing what the competition is doing to formalizing procedures and finding solutions from others who have experienced the same technical problems. The benefits of Internet access is limitless. Employees can be actively involved in their tasks at hand while waiting for an e-mail response to an important question or section of an important joint task.
E-mail is used extensively and has become such an important tool that it is in many cases replacing the Postal System. Why pay such high prices, and then wait for several days for the information, presentation or important documentation that you need when you can have it instantly. This new electronic means of communication has had a definite negative impact on the Postal Systems profits, but it has boosted the speed by which we conduct business to match the tempo of today’s business world. Another benefit of the Internet is FTP, or File Transfer Protocol. FTP refers to one of the protocols within the protocol suite used on the Internet. The File Transfer Protocol makes it possible to transfer files from one computer on the Internet to another.
A user of an FTP program must log in to both hosts in order to transfer a file from one to the other. It is common for a user with files on more than one host to use the FTP program to transfer files from one host to another. In this case, the user has an account on both hosts involved, so he has passwords for both hosts. An additional benefit of Internet access is Offline web browsing. This software is loaded on your computer and allows you to download sites to your hard drive for local viewing. The benefits are obvious, the first being speed. Many sites on the web containing large graphic files that are slow to download and actually waste time because your computer is rendered useless while you wait for them. There are also image maps, audio, video and other multimedia objects that take forever to reach your computer. This is where the advantages of Off-line browsing come into play. You can easily share web based information with your coworkers without waiting for pages to download. The concept is ideal for corporate presentations - all the pages you need to demonstrate are stored locally for instant access.
The most obvious benefit is that you don't need to be connected to the Internet in order to browse your favorite sites. If you happen to have an internet service plan that charges by the hour, you can download a site very quickly, then peruse it offline at your own leisurely pace. In conclusion, Internet access in my business is a required tool that is utilized to continually provide better service to our clients. The Internet allows us to immediately obtain and trade information that is of mutual benefit to both individual tasks and corporate ventures. The internet has become an integral part of our daily business life. Should we loose this capability, our success and marketability would immediately suffer because we would loose our market edge.
Multimedia
The term media refers to the storage, transmission, interchange, presentation, representation and perception of different information types such as text, graphics, voice, audio and video. The term multimedia is used to denote the property of handling a variety of representation media in an integrated manner. The phrase 'representation media' is used because it is believed the most fundamental aspect of multimedia systems is the support for different representation types. It is necessary for a multimedia system to support a variety of representation media types. It is also important that the various sources of media types are integrated into a single system framework. Multimedia is more than multiple media. Multimedia adds interactivity to the combination of text, graphics, images, audio and video. Creating your own media is more interactive than is using existing content, and collaborating with others in the creation of media is still more interactive.
Multimedia systems use a number of different media to communicate supplementary, additional or redundant information. Often this may take the form of using multiple sensory channels, but it may also take the form of different types of visual input - textual, graphical, iconic, animation and video. Multimedia - the combination of text, animated graphics, video, and sound--presents information in a way that is more interesting and easier to grasp than text alone. It has been used for education at all levels, job training, and games and by the entertainment industry. It is becoming more readily available as the price of personal computers and their accessories declines. Multimedia as a human-computer interface was made possible some half-dozen years ago by the rise of affordable digital technology. Previously, multimedia effects were produced by computer-controlled analogue devices, like videocassette recorders, projectors, and tape recorders.
Digital technology's exponential decline in price and increase in capacity has enabled it to overtake analogue technology. The Internet is the breeding ground for multimedia ideas and the delivery vehicle of multimedia objects to a huge audience. While we have treated various output media in isolation, it is clear that interesting issues emerge as they are combined in what is termed multimedia. In this sense, any computer application that employs a video disk, images from a CD-ROM, uses high quality sound, or uses high quality video images on screen may be termed a multimedia application. Such interfaces are often aesthetically appealing and, where high capacity storage devices such as CD-ROM are used, can provide effective interactions for the user by acting as very large databases or storehouses of information with dense but easy-to-use cross-referencing and indexing. Multimedia is all things to all people. The name can convey a highly specific meaning or less then nothing, depending on your audience. In fact, multimedia is a singular mix of disparate technologies with overlapping application in pursuit of a market and an identity. We can describe it as the seamless integration of data, text, images and sound within a single digital information environment.
Multimedia finds its worth in the field of presenting information in a manner that is intuitive and more natural then traditional means. A multimedia user interface must provide a wide variety of easily understood and usable media control tools. In addition, information views need to be integrated with structural views, since the viewing of information will often alternate moving through the structure by one means or another. Interactive Multimedia (IMM) is about empowering the user to explore new realms by a variety of pathways. It is an umbrella term for a range of videodisc, compact disc and computer-based systems that allow the creation, integration and manipulation of text, graphics, still and moving video images and sound. The computer elements of an IMM system have the capacity to: · Store, manipulate and present a range of information forms · Allow various forms of computer-based information to be accessed in linear and non-linear ways. · Provide graphics overlay and print out screen material. · Enable learners to work independently. · Provide feedback to the learner Interactive multimedia provides a powerful means of enhancing learning and information provision.
Network Management
Imagine yourself as a network administrator, responsible for a 2000 user network. This network reaches from California to New York, and some branches over seas. In this situation, anything can, and usually does go wrong, but it would be your job as a system administrator to resolve the problem with it arises as quickly as possible. The last thing you would want is for your boss to call you up, asking why you haven’t done anything to fix the 2 major systems that have been down for several hours. How do you explain to him that you didn’t even know about it? Would you even want to tell him that? So now, picture yourself in the same situation, only this time, you were using a network monitoring program. Sitting in front of a large screen displaying a map of the world, leaning back gently in your chair. A gentle warning tone sounds, and looking at your display, you see that California is now glowing a soft red in color, in place of the green glow just moments before. You select the state of California, and it zooms in for a closer look. You see a network diagram overview of all the computers your company has within California
. Two systems are flashing, with an X on top of them indicating that they are experiencing problems. Tagging the two systems, you press enter, and with a flash, the screen displays all the statitics of the two systems, including anything they might have in common causing the problem. Seeing that both systems are linked to the same card of a network switch, you pick up the phone and give that branch office a call, notifying them not only that they have a problem, but how to fix it as well. Early in the days of computers, a central computer (called a mainframe) was connected to a bunch of dumb terminals using a standard copper wire. Not much thought was put into how this was done because there was only one way to do it: they were either connected, or they weren’t. Figure 1 shows a diagram of these early systems. If something went wrong with this type of system, it was fairly easy to troubleshoot, the blame almost always fell on the mainframe system.
Shortly after the introduction of Personal Computers (PC), came Local Area Networks (LANS), forever changing the way in which we look at networked systems. LANS originally consisted of just PC’s connected into groups of computers, but soon after, there came a need to connect those individual LANS together forming what is known as a Wide Area Network, or WAN, the result was a complex connection of computers joined together using various types of interfaces and protocols. Figure 2 shows a modern day WAN. Last year, a survey of Fortune 500 companies showed that 15% of their total computer budget, 1.6 Million dollars, was spent on network management (Rose, 115). Because of this, much attention has focused on two families of network management protocols:
The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), which comes from a de facto standards based background of TCP/IP communication, and the Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP), which derives from a de jure standards-based background associated with the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) (Fisher, 183). In this report I will cover advantages and disadvantages of both Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP) and Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)., as well as discuss a new protocol for the future. I will also give some good reasons supporting why I believe that SNMP is a protocol that all network administrators should use. SNMP is a protocol that enables a management station to configure, monitor, and receive trap (alarm) messages from network devices. (Feit, 12). It is formally specified in a series of related Request for Comment (RFC) documents, listed here. RFC 1089 - SNMP over Ethernet RFC 1140 - IAB Official Protocol Standards RFC 1147 - Tools for Monitoring and Debugging TCP/IP Internets and Interconnected Devices [superceded by RFC 1470] RFC 1155 - Structure and Identification of Management Information for TCP/IP based internets. RFC 1156 - Management Information Base Network Management of TCP/IP based internets RFC 1157 - A Simple Network Management Protocol RFC 1158 - Management Information Base Network Management of TCP/IP based internets: MIB-II RFC 1161 - SNMP over OSI RFC 1212 - Concise MIB Definitions RFC 1213 - Management Information Base for Network Management of TCP/IP-based internets:
MIB-II RFC 1215 - A Convention for Defining Traps for use with the SNMP RFC 1298 - SNMP over IPX (SNMP, Part 1 of 2, I.1.) The first protocol developed was the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). It was commonly considered to be a quickly designed “band-aid” solution to internetwork management difficulties while other, larger and better protocols were being designed. (Miller, 46). However, no better choice became available, and SNMP soon became the network management protocol of choice. It works very simply (as the name suggests): it exchanges network packets through messages (known as protocol data units (PDU)). The PDU contains variables that have both titles and values. There are five types of PDU’s which SNMP uses to monitor a network: two deal with reading terminal data, two with setting terminal data, and one called the trap, used for monitoring network events, such as terminal start-ups or shut-downs. By far the largest advantage of SNMP over CMIP is that its design is simple, so it is as easy to use on a small network as well as on a large one, with ease of setup, and lack of stress on system resources.
Software Piracy
Software piracy is defined as the illegal copying of software for commercial or personal gain. Software companies have tried many methods to prevent piracy, with varying degrees of success. Several agencies like the Software Publishers Association and the Business Software Alliance have been formed to combat both worldwide and domestic piracy. Software piracy is an unresolved, worldwide problem, costing millions of dollars in lost revenue. Software companies have used many different copy protection schemes. The most annoying form of copy protection is the use of a key disk. This type of copy protection requires the user to insert the original disk every time the program is run. It can be quite difficult to keep up with disks that are years old.
The most common technique of copy protection requires the user to look up a word or phrase in the program's manual. This method is less annoying than other forms of copy protection, but it can be a nuisance having to locate the manual every time. Software pirates usually have no trouble "cracking" the program, which permanently removes the copy protection. After the invention of CD-ROM, which until lately was uncopyable, most software companies stopped placing copy protection in their programs. Instead, the companies are trying new methods of disc impression. 3M recently developed a new technology of disc impression which allows companies to imprint an image on the read side of a CD-ROM. This technology would not prevent pirates from copying the CD, but it would make a "bootleg" copy differ from the original and make the copy traceable by law enforcement officials . Sometimes, when a person uses a pirated program, there is a "virus" attached to the program.
Viruses are self-replicating programs that, when activated, can damage a computer. These viruses are most commonly found on pirated computer games, placed there by some malignant computer programmer. In his January 1993 article, Chris O' Malley points out that if piracy was wiped out viruses would eventually disappear . There are ways that a thrifty consumer can save money on software without resorting to piracy. Computer companies often offer discounts on new software if a person has previously purchased an earlier version of the software. Competition between companies also drives prices low and keeps the number of pirated copies down . People eventually tire or outgrow their software and decide to sell it. Usually, there is no problem transferring the program from one person to another unless the original owner had been bound by a license agreement. In order for the new owner to legally own the software, the old owner must tell the company, in writing, that he would like to transfer the license to the new owner.
Most people fail to notify the company when selling software, thus making the unsuspecting new owner a software pirate . Consumers must be careful when dealing with used software. United States copyright law allows consumers to place a copy of a program on their computer and also make another copy for backup purposes, in case the original disk fails or is destroyed. Some software companies use licensing agreements to restrict people from making more than one copy of a program. Such use of agreements can make an average consumer into a software pirate, in his effort to make sure his expensive software is safe . Before 1990 movie rental stores could rent computer software. People who rented the software would copy the software before returning it. In defense, Congress passed the Software Rental Act, outlawing the rental of software. Even though illegal, many stores and even some software companies still rent software. Since retail space in stores is extremely limited, companies could rent older software that did not have a good showing in retail stores .
Software companies could take an idea from the home video industry. The larger video makers found that if they sold videos in foreign countries through their own dealerships, the amount of piracy decreased . A rather unique strategy used by American software manufactures helps raise local interest in stopping software piracy. Companies invest money to begin software corporations in foreign countries. After a few years, the US companies hope that the new, foreign companies will initiate their own anti-piracy organizations . Microsoft has led the venture by creating small software companies to help battle piracy. By doing this, the companies would want to report piracy because they would be losing money just like American companies are doing now . The Software Publishers Association, based in Washington, D.C., was developed to combat software piracy. As of 1993 the SPA has brought more than 1300 court cases against software pirates. The SPA has a toll-free number that has helped catch many pirates and prosecute them . The SPA is not merely a law enforcement agency. It meets twice a year with representatives from software companies. Together they decide how to make their software better and also how to better serve the consumer.
Web Influence Over Business
The Internet will greatly alter the structure and operation of all industries. For the management of any existing business the central question is not whether the Internet will be relevant to your business, but rather what will we need to do to profit from that change. The Internet is evolving many aspects of business and it creates many new business opportunities. It is developing what is called the “New Business Environment”, because it changes the way products are developed, distributed, marketed, sold, and serviced. In theory, doing business over the Internet with consumers should be ideal however, many people are not comfortable with it yet. It will take a little while before most people are completely at ease and order products.
First off, the Internet will provide many capabilities that will be very beneficial to a business. Some of the benefits include E-mail, Mailing Lists, UseNet, Telnet, FTP, Gopher, and of course the World Wide Web. All of these are a way to keep you informed and in touch with business associates and customers anywhere in the world . With an Intranet in place you’ve got an infrastructure for group applications, you don’t need to install software on everyone’s PC, they can just use their Web browser and while the main costs are in employee time, the cost of software has dropped significantly . The effects of the Internet will take a decade or more to generally replace existing patterns of business.
The Internet and its strategic impact are not technological issues, they are business ones . Executives are likely to carry responsibility for whether their organization ultimately prospers or perishes in an Internet impacted world. The particular impact will differ between industries, so you need to identify the likely form of impact it will have on your industry and adopt appropriate strategies. A few threats are when using the Internet, competitors become relatively more effective, e.g. reducing costs, improving service and increasing sales impact. Also, some important customers or suppliers may have migrated exclusively to the Internet and are inaccessible in any other way. Some firms redefine the industry in a very fundamental way that threatens all existing competitors . With the advent of the Internet, it has dramatically improved operational and sales effectiveness in numerous different applications. A few such areas are, on-line stockbrokers: such as E*Trade and Ceres, on-line travel agents, banks and other financial services: such as on-line banking systems, and insurance and fund management.
Right now, there are many companies whose outreach is global such as Amazon.com and CD Now, soon all of the above areas will be global . Another area of the business environment that will be significantly changed due to the Internet are small firms, especially ones who wish to export. The Internet can relatively easily give small firms access to international markets, and engage in electric commerce . However, not much is known about the use of the Internet by small firms, mainly because it is such a new method. An example of such an idea was taken advantage of by Elizabeth Botham & Sons Bakery. The bakery is located in a small town called Whitby in North Yorkshire and business is tough because it is geographically restricting and it is based in a very seasonable town. In order to do business and keep their staff hired year around the manager, Mike Jarman turned to the Internet. He found a company called Octagon Ltd., which helped him get started. Since going on the Web in 1995, the company has had over 25,000 potential customers visit the site and receives a dozen hefty orders a week .
The Web is a great distribution tool, the information you place on your Web site can be accessed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The Web can save you time and money in information distribution over traditional mail and printing methods . Rather than reading a static advertisement, your customers can go directly to their areas of interest and see an intriguing web page. They can get detailed information on your staff and services, browse your product lines, and get up to date information on what is happening in your company. One of the benefits of a web site is that your customer can respond to you directly . Even though the Internet has many benefits, there is still a few drawbacks to this technology.
Educational Technology
The best method for improving educational standards is to utilize every tool available, including state-of-the-art technology. Computers and the Internet have expanded the way in which information can be delivered to the students of today. Today's networking technologies provide a valuable opportunity to practice new learning techniques. Educators are discovering that computers are facilitating learning. Computer based communications, or Telecommunications, can offer many educational opportunities; therefore, educators will need to adapt current teaching methods to incorporate this new media into the classroom.
Computers have made a fundamental impact in most industries, providing a competitive advantage that has come to be essential to many businesses. Therefore, schools must also use technology to improve the educational process. School systems often consider purchasing a computer network, and justify its purchase by applying it to routine administrative tasks, such as attendance records and grading. While these tasks are very important, they only show a small part of what technology can do for a school. Technology must go further than simply keeping attendance; it must focus on keeping students interested and productive. Since computers and the Internet have expanded in such a way in which education can be delivered to students, it is currently possible to engage in "distance education through the Internet. Distance education involves audio and video links between teachers and students in remote areas.
Video conferencing allows groups to communicate with each other. Desktop video conferencing promises to bring students together from geographic and cultural distances, face to face via computer. Not only will the teacher talk to the students, but the students will be able to interact with each other. This will make students more interested and fascinated with learning. Not only does the Internet and video conferencing help education, but new programs designed for educational purposes are being developed. Dictionaries, encyclopedias and atlases that a student can access from his own computer can be a definite advantage. For example, instead of looking for a particular country and simply finding out where it is in a regular atlas, that can type in the name of that country, and not only will they find out where it is faster, but they will obtain more information about that particular country.
Instead of having volumes and volumes of heavy encyclopedias, technology has enabled companies to place all of these massive books onto one small CD. This CD is much simpler than the unpleasant job of flipping page by page just to read about an uninteresting topic, such as history. Writing reports on a type-writer was a displeasing method to write term papers; especially if that student runs out of white-out. Certain programs offer a spell-checker, thesaurus, and other helpful features, which make writing that term-paper easier. These particular programs are only a few of the educational resources available to students. Most educational boards should be open to any new idea that technology has to offer. It would not be fair for a student in a particular city to receive a better education than another student in a different city.
Technology is not meant to replace teachers, but is there to serve students to make tedious tasks easier. Therefore, this technology should be available to every student, wherever they may live. In doing this, it not only needs the support of teachers and educators, but it also requires support from communities. However, technology can not work by itself. Teachers must take a position in designing a tech-powered classroom curriculum, devoting time to become familiar with the new available resources. Technology can also improve writing with the use of new word processing programs that provide easy to use tools that are not normally available in the classroom. Technology is able to help students in a variety of ways. By making learning more enjoyable, students will want to learn and will not see education as such a difficult responsibility.
Genetic Engineering
A girl is born without Tay-Sachs disease, a devasting genetic disorder that has decimated a lot of babies worldwide. A leukemia patient has defective bone marrow replaced with healthy bone marrow that was cloned from tissue from her own cells. These futuristic scenarios are not part of the debate for genetic engineering but they should be. Many people are afraid that somebody will clone Hitler or some evil person, but that is far from the fact. Genetic engineering can be used to make many aspects of human life better, including saving lives. The rapid development of humanity’s ability to control the gene will eventually lead to a promising future for the entire planet as a whole.
Genetic engineering resulted not from the belief that nature should be manipulated and perfected by humanity. Rather, its principle aim is, as of any other technology, to improve the quality of life for the people of this planet. Therefore, it is necessary to weigh the benefits and consequences of this relatively recent breakthrough and determine in which ways it can be used to humanity’s best advantage. This speech will investigate the ways in which genetic engineering affects two important areas in today’s society. The first one will be the improvement of the world’s agricultural techniques. With an ever-increasing growth in world population, the Earth’s resources are constantly becoming scarce. The advent of genetic engineering may be used to avert the occurrence of worldwide famine and starvation. The second one investigated will be in the field of medical development and study.
Currently, genetic diseases are decimating the world’s population. Thousands of people have already died without a single worthy treatment or cure. Worldwide acceptance and support of this technology would aid in our battle against these diseases. According to the United Nations medium projections issued in 1990 ,the global population will be increasing from 5.3 billion in 1990 to 8.5 billion in the year 2025. Consequently, there will be a much greater need for food, therefore accelerating further the consumption of Earth’s resources. To achieve this, it would be necessary to extensively use agricultural technology. However our current use of pesticides and other chemical fertilizers pose a serious evironmental threat. Using genetic engineering would ultimately reduce the amount of potentially dangerous chemical substances we introduce into the environment. It would as well make food production more efficient therefore reducing distribution costs.
Thanks to genetic engineering, Geneticists are currently able to create a resistant strain of the ordinary supermarket tomato. Using a technique called antisense genetics, the gene that is responsible for allowing tomatoes to soften and ripen can be transformed to produce the opposite effect. The billions of tomatoes that circulating all around the world can therefore be made to resist the normal abuse of shipping and transport, and also having a longer shelf life. This practice could be applied to all other sorts of fruits and vegetables. This would allow for less of a waste of food therefore, putting less of a strain on human resources. Diseases and genetic defects have always been a major cause of concern for our society. Antibiotics, which used to be successful against pathogens, are now starting to become useless since the viruses have become resistant to the medications administered. Therefore a proposed alternative is the use of genetic engineering or more specifically, gene therapy, to cure diseases at the DNA level. This method is known as biotechnology and can aid in the treatment of diseases like a hormone deficiency.
Wireless Technology
Wireless technology can provide many benefits to computing including faster response to queries, reduced time spent on paperwork, increased online time for users, just-in-time and real time control, tighter communications between clients and hosts. Wireless Computing is governed by two general forces: Technology, which provides a set of basic building blocks and User Applications, which determine a set of operations that must be carried out efficiently on demand. This paper summarizes technological changes that are underway and describes their impact on wireless computing development and implementation. It also describes the applications that influence the development and implementation of wireless computing and shows what current systems offer
Wireless computing is the topic of much conversation today. The concept has been around for some time now but has been mainly utilizing communication protocols that exist for voice-based communication. It is not intended to replace wired data communication but instead to be utilized in areas that it would be otherwise impossible to communicate using wires. Only recently has the industry been taking steps to formulate a standard that is more suitable to data transmission. Some the problems to be overcome are: a. Data Integrity - relatively error free transmission, b. Speed - as close as possible to the speed of current wired networks, c. Protection - making sure that the data now airborne is encoded and cannot be tapped by unwelcome receivers, d. Compatibility - ensuring that the many protocols that sure to be created subscribe to a standard to allow inter-operability, e. Environmentally safe - strengths of electromagnetic radiation must be kept within normal levels.
In our study of the theories and implementation concerns of wireless computing, we found that it is being treated in an object-oriented fashion. Scientists and development crews, including the IEEE, are doing their best to implement wireless connectivity without changing the existing computer hardware. As a result, a lot of focus is on using existing computer hardware and software to convert data to a format compatible with the new hardware, which will be added to the computer using ports, or PCMCIA connections that already exist. This means that wireless communication will be transparent to the user if and when wireless computing is utilized on a wide scale. Wireless computing applications covers three broad areas of computing today. Replacement of normal wired LAN’s need to retain the speed and reliability found in wired LAN’s. Creation of semi permanent LAN’s for quick and easy setup without the need for running wires. This would be necessary for events such as earthquakes. The last category is that of mobile computing. With advent of PCMCIA cards, notebook computers are being substituted for regular desktop machines with complete connectivity of the desktop machine. However, you lose the connectivity when out of the office unless you have a wireless means of communicating.
On the compatibility issue, the ability to mix wireless brands on a single network is not likely to come soon. The IEEE Standards Committee is working on a wireless LAN standard -- 802.11, which is an extension of the Ethernet protocol. Because the field of wireless communication is so broad, the IEEE was not able to set a standard by the time private researchers were ready to test their theories hoping to set the standard for others to follow. II. Methods There are a few methods of wireless communication being theorized and tested. Radio: This is the method that makes use of standard radio waves in the 902 MHz to 928 MHz frequency range. Although these frequencies are well used, methods have been developed to ensure data integrity. Spread spectrum transmission of data is a method where the transmitter will send information simultaneously out over many frequencies in the range increasing the change that all data will eventually reach the receiver. Frequency hopping is an additional measure that also enables data security. The 26 MHz ranges of frequencies is further divided in to channels. The transmitter then sends out data hopping from one channel to the next in a certain pattern known to the receiver. Within each channel, spread spectrum transmission can be used to maintain interference avoidance. Some of this transmission manipulation can be avoided by transmitting at a frequency that is less used. Some developers have tried transmitting in the gigahertz range.
Global Warming
What happens when too much carbon dioxide gets omitted into the Earth’s atmosphere? The condition known as Global Warming occurs. Global Warming is the rising of the Earth’s surface temperature due to chemicals in the atmosphere. Global Warming has many threats on the climate and even the health of the people on this planet. Some of these threats include the altering of crop seasons and even effect the way organisms survive on the planet. The first thing I think I should discuss when talking about global warming is what causes it to occur. Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, which are known as greenhouse gases, all build up in the atmosphere of the earth. All these gases make it so that it becomes harder for the radiation that the sun shines into the atmosphere to escape. The heat continues to build up and this is what causes the temperatures to increase. I know this seems like the temperatures increase massively but in the last hundred years the average temperature of the Earth has gone up between 0.8 and 1.0 degrees farenheight. Also in the last fifteen years, we have had the ten warmest years in record.
Global Warming also helps the Earth and it has been for many years. Without global warming, the Earth’s temperature would be a lot lower than the 60-degree average. Unfortunately due to there being many more harmful “greenhouse gases” being placed into the atmosphere, instead of the temperature staying at a constant, its rising. What are many of the dangers of the Earth’s temperature rising? First of all it cause many of the glaciers that are floating in the Arctic and Greenland to melt. This in turn causes the sea levels to rise around the world. In the last hundred years alone the seas around the planet have risen anywhere from four to ten inches. I know it does not sound like a massive change but being able to raise all the seas in the world a whole ten inches is a huge problem.
Sea levels also continue to rise is because the hotter temperature cause the ocean water to expand. An example of the sea level causing problems could happen on a little Native Island in the middle of an Ocean. On these islands usually where native tribes live, if the sea level rises three fourths of a meter then half of the island will sink. This could happen in many different islands around the world and if the water keeps on rising as it is, then farming land near the seashores will be flooded and the crops will be destroyed and many farmers will be left without much to live off of. The melting of the glaciers are also causing some problems in the Himalayas. Many of the tips of the mountain’s in that area. Massive flooding and rivers that are well above their normal levels are threatening the crops and homes in the area.
Many of the locals that live in the area and many of the scientists that are surveying the area are saying that the glaciers are melting at a phenomenal rate. Another danger that comes with the changing of the climate is that the increased heat causes more evaporation to occur in the hotter climates. This causes there to be more precipitation in many other climates that are not used to handling massive rainfalls. The increased rainfall also leads to speeding up the process of the sea levels rising. Health is also something that becomes threatened because of global warming. Heat becomes a huge factor in the health of humans, especially the elderly. Incidents such as heat stroke head exhaustion and diseases increase drastically. The heat makes it possible for mosquitoes and other insects to transmit diseases. This is something that happened in New York during this summer. A very rare disease called St. Louis Emphyitis that would spread in puddles of water that mosquitoes would drink out of due to the heat. These mosquitoes would then bite humans and infect them with this disease. I don’t recall how many people, if any died due to this, but it did cause a bit of a panic in the New York Metropolitan area. Heat is not the only weather problem. Global Warming doesn't only increase temperatures in hot areas. It also decreases temperatures in cold areas. An example of this has been the cold spell that struck the Midwest. In Montana, temperatures plummeted to 30 degrees below and stayed there. The coldest weather ever recorded plagued our country's heart for over three weeks and still hasn't returned too normal.
Health Maintenance Organizations
Throughout history, America has always strived for freedom and quality of life. Wars were fought and people died to preserve these possessions. We are now in a time where we may see these ideals crumble like dust in the wind. Health Maintenance Organizations, HMO’s are currently depriving millions of people from quality health acre and freedom of choice. This is occurring because people who are enrolled in HMO’s are unable to choose the doctor that they want. Also patients lose the quality of care because HMO’s interfere with the health care providers decisions.
The Health Maintenance Organization has been proven to “sometimes interfere with physicians’ exercise of sound medical judgement and avoid covering necessary medical care, causing members to either pay out of their own pockets or go without” . This means that the insurance company does not really care about you. The insurance company only cares about how much money it has to spend on you as a person and if you need a type of special care that cost money either you can pay for it your self or just go without the care that is needed. This interference often compromises the patients’ ability to have freedom of choice in selecting a provider and to get the best quality for their health care needs. This freedom of choice is the ability to choice the doctor that you want as a doctor. Yet instead HMOs pick the doctor for you. All over the United States HMO’s have denied patients the medical care which they need. In Charlotte, North Carolina, for example, a boy named Ethan Bedrick was born with cerebral palsy. His doctors said that in order for him to be able to ever walk, he would need extensive therapy.
Yet according to HMO policy, patients are only allowed a maximum of fifteen therapy sessions per year; therefore, his health plan said “NO.” The HMO said no when a little boy said please help. This proves why HMO’s frequently deprive patients of the optimum quality of life. This little boy’s future of being able to walk was crushed by an insurance company that was so money grubbing greedy that it could not stretch the rule for this case. Since the boy’s therapy is not being paid for the HMOs gets a bonus in their paycheck. They took the money that was supposed to go to the therapy and put it into their pockets. An epidemic has occurred in most senior citizens lives. Since January 1, 1999 440,000 senior citizens have lost their HMO privileges. In essence, HMO’s decided to arbitrarily eliminate the senior citizen plan. The sad reality is that many members who subscribed to these particular HMO’s for its senior citizens package are out of luck and without medical coverage.
For many people over the age of 65 who once had HMO benefits are now scrambling to find a new insurance. There are people like Allen Martin from New York, who is over the age of 65. Due to a severe disease his kidneys do not work. As a result he needs dialysis, (which is when the waste material is flushed out of the body) three times a week. This process is extremely expensive costing hundreds of dollars each time and what was once paid for by the HMO, but now he has to find some way to pay for it on his own. In many cases doctors are unable to tell a patient the limitations of their particular HMO and how it interferes with the ability to provide good medicine. This is called the “gag rule”. These gag rules do not allow the doctors to say anything bad or against HMO’s. Also the rules restrain doctors from telling the patient certain things that HMO’s do not pay for such as special procedures that might benefit the patients condition. Doctors who work with HMO’s have to sign a contract. This contract states that a doctor is unable to tell patients certain things.
Health And Insurance System
The development of liberal thought began in the seventeen-century England. Often, constitutional monarchy is perceived as a beginning of liberalism. Growth of commercial middle classes and wealth accumulation and consumption, leaded to a new, individualistic morality. The individual is a basic unit of the liberalism ideology. Supreme goals of a liberal political system are preservation of the individual and attainment of individual happiness. That includes the preservation of the individual properties, that is individual life, liberty and estate, and the task of the government was to help the individual in doing so. Individual is to be regarded as inviolable and human life as a sacrosanct, so the violence is prohibited except in preservation of liberal society. This ideology respects all persons as moral beings with equal sensitivity.
Individual is assumed to be essentially rational, so it could be considered the prime source of value, which determines justification of participatory rather than authoritarian government. Liberalism diminishes importance of social whole, which is considered not to have any rights against individuals. This outlook can be called “atomistic”. Liberal theorists are unwilling to invoke concepts such as the common good and public interests. The only common good they want recognize is the maximization of the aggregate of individual benefits. On the economic side 18th- and 19th-century liberalism based itself on the sovereignty of the market and the "natural harmony of interests." On this view, if individuals are left free to pursue their self-interest in an exchange economy based upon a division of labour, the welfare of the group as a whole will necessarily be enhanced.
Classical liberal economists describe a self-adjusting market mechanism free from all teleological influences. While moral goals are invoked and ethical criteria presupposed in passing ultimate judgment on the system, they play no part in determining the sequence of events within it. The one propelling force is the selfishness of the individual, which becomes harnessed to the public good because in an exchange economy he must serve others in order to serve himself. It is only in a free market, however, that this consequence can ensue; any other arrangement must lead to regimentation, exploitation, and economic stagnation. Spiritual side of individual was acknowledged in assumption that man is a free, rational and self – improving being, and that his natural state is freedom. The duty of government was to provide the conditions to individual to enjoy the maximum possible freedom within a frame of law. The hallmark of the liberalism is a concern with the limits of authority and opposition to state interference with individual activities.
Classical Liberals tend to define freedom in negative forms, for example, freedom from government regulation, and to opposite to almost all government activity. The role of the state is to perform as a device for performing the residual tasks which individual self-interest leaves undone. The guiding principle of historical liberalism has been an undeviating insistence on limiting the power of government. The main concept is that economic freedom is a key to individual liberty. On the other hand--and this is a basic difference between classical and contemporary liberalism--most liberals now believe that the dispensations of the market, as it has in fact operated, must be supplemented and corrected in substantive ways. They contend that enormous social costs incurred in production are not reflected in market prices, and that resources are used wastefully. Not least, liberals charge that the market advances the allocation of human and physical resources in the direction of satisfying superficial wants (for oversized motor cars and unnecessary gadgets), while basic needs (for schools, housing, rapid public transit, sewage treatment plants) go unmet. Finally, although liberals believe that prices, wages, and profits should continue to be subject to negotiation among the interested parties and responsive to conventional market pressures, they insist that price-wage-profit decisions affecting the economy as a whole must be reconciled with public policy. Socialists, on the other hand define human beings as creatures formed by the environment.
Biotechnology
The welfare and development of today's student-athlete is central to the administration of Big Ten Conference intercollegiate athletics. Providing opportunity for young men and women to mature in a wholesome and healthy way is critically important to our universities. A commitment exists at all levels of our universities to providing the resources to support the welfare of Big Ten student-athletes. At the 1996 NCAA Convention, the Division I membership debated a number of issues related to financial assistance for student-athletes. Limitations on Pell Grants, stipends awarded by the federal government for educational purposes, were removed. Discussions took place, and continue to occur, on ways to liberalize rules on how student-athletes can earn money from work done during the off-season. Around the same time, the NCAA Executive Committee increased the annual funding of the special assistance fund from 3 million dollar to 10 million dollar.
Big Ten institutions provide more than 6,400 young men and women opportunities to play on 250 intercollegiate teams. These young people receive more than 42 million dollar annually from Big Ten institutions in grants-in-aid . While receiving the opportunity for a world-class education, they compete with and against some of the finest amateur athletes in the country. Needy student-athletes in the Big Ten may receive up to 2,000 dollar annually above the value of their grant-in-aid via federal aid and are eligible for cash payments from the special assistance fund for items like clothing, emergency trips home and other special needs. Big Ten universities also assist student-athletes in identifying summer employment opportunities, career placement and catastrophic-injury insurance plans. They also assist with a 1 million dollar insurance plan that financially protects student-athletes with professional sports aspirations in the event they suffer a disabling injury.
Today, the system that served so many so well and for so long is being called into question by the media, the public and even by some coaches and student-athletes. They assert that some student-athletes in football and basketball should be paid for their participation. They believe that the market forces that drive professional sports, or any other private-sector activity, should provide the controlling principle for the relationship between the student-athlete and the university. This issue of financial assistance for student-athletes is critical to defining and examining the relationship between intercollegiate athletics and higher education as we approach the 21st century. While we must be open to novel approaches and new ideas, paying student-athletes to play is not supportable within the context of Big Ten intercollegiate athletics -- now or in the future. In my view, revenues derived from intercollegiate athletics are the sole property of the institution and should be expended in support of the broadest array of men's and women's educational and athletics opportunities. Thus, revenues are earned in private-sector activity and spent within the confines of the university for appropriate educational purposes.
Some critics of college athletics cite the economic and educational exploitation of the student-athletes who participate in our major revenue sports as a major flaw in the system. We believe the educational and the lifetime economic benefits associated with a university education are the appropriate quid pro quo for any Big Ten student-athlete, regardless of the sport. For many decades, Big Ten intercollegiate athletics has been funded largely by revenues from men's basketball and football programs. This situation is not likely to change in the foreseeable future. Our institutions have sponsored sports programs that enabled outstanding athletes such as Magic Johnson, Isiah Thomas, Red Grange, Archie Griffin, John Havlicek and Dick Butkus to obtain an education and play their sport, in turn providing resources for educational and athletics opportunities for such people as Suzy Favor, Jesse Owens, Mark Spitz and Jack Nicklaus. Under this system, people like John Wooden and Gerald Ford played alongside student-athletes much less famous, but equally deserving of an intercollegiate athletics experience. Intercollegiate athletics has provided, and will continue to provide, opportunities for social mobility through education for future generations of young men and women.
Electronic Banking
The Electronic Banking Association (EBA) is a non-profit organization established to do one simple thing-help more people get started with electronic banking. Here's why. Who taught you how to write paper checks? Probably your parent's right? Well, who's going to teach you how to write electronic checks? Probably NOT your parents. That's where they come in. E-banking is so much more convenient and so much quicker that everyone should know about it. The EBA was established as an independent source of helpful information about electronic banking for consumers and businesses. Financial institutions, merchants, and other financial service firms actually provide financial e-commerce services, but the Electronic Banking Association (EBA) monitors progress in the financial e-commerce industry and provides information that will enable users of those services to become better informed and to locate providers of the services they seek. Everyone hates paying bills. It's time-consuming, frustrating, and you have to lick that awful envelope glue. But not with e-banking. You'll spend less time paying bills, and more time doing fun stuff. Here are some advantages to e-banking: - No more paper checks. Your computer remembers who you write checks to. You simply enter an amount then point-and-click. You'll never run out of checks again. - No more hassles. You can schedule your payments in advance, so they'll get paid while you're on vacation or away on business.
Electronic payments are processed quickly, in as little as 24 hours to 5 days (unlike a paper check sent in the mail, which takes an average of 10 days to post). - No more envelopes to lick. No envelope glue. No paper cuts on your tongue. And you can stop writing your return address again, and again, and again. - No more writer's cramp. It takes forever to write checks and addresses every month. E-banking cuts that time to practically nothing. - No more stamps. With e-banking, there's no postage and your bills are processed quickly - whenever you want them paid. You can pay your bills online, so it only makes sense to receive them that way, too. This is called "Electronic Bill Presentment," and more and more businesses are going to offer it. - No more lost bills. Your dog can't eat electronic bills. Your kids can't misplace them. And you can't lose them under a stack of catalogs. - Pay bills when you want to. Not when the post office decides to deliver them. Click to see it. Click to pay it. Your bills appear right on your computer screen and look much like the printed bills you are used to getting. But the difference is you can pay them with just the click of a mouse. - Better record keeping.
All your billing and payment information is kept in one convenient location, not in messy cardboard boxes or goodness only knows where else. You can pay your bills online, so it only makes sense to receive them that way, too. This is called "Electronic Bill Presentment," and more and more businesses are going to offer it. In addition to paying bills online, you can get current information any time you want it. So you can get up-to-date account balances, transfer funds, obtain information about check clearing; all sorts of things. You can import this information directly into today's popular financial management programs such as Quicken without having to re-enter it. You buy things all the time with credit cards, right? Well then, those are electronic transactions just like these.
Today's latest Web browsers have sophisticated encryption that's very secure. What's more, electronic checks are safer than having paper checks lying around where anyone can obtain and misuse your account information. Experts predict it would take a hacker over 2,000 years to crack 56-bit encryption. Yet many financial institutions today require a browser that supports 128-bit encryption, which would take about 12,710,204,652,610,000,000,000,000 years to crack. Now that's secure. When you're ready to open an e-banking account, you can receive more information on security, as well as a recent browser that supports 128-bit encryption, through your financial institution or at the Netscape and Microsoft Web sites. In the time it takes you to pay your bills the old-fashioned way, you can be up and running with e-banking. Best of all, once you enter who you pay bills to, you'll never have to re-enter that information. Your financial institution may offer e-banking via the Web or a personal financial manager or both. Web-based e-banking is generally easier and quicker to set up.
SELF RELIANCE
To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, — that is genius. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal sense; for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost,—— and our first thought is rendered back to us by the trumpets of the Last Judgment. Familiar as the voice of the mind is to each, the highest merit we ascribe to Moses, Plato, and Milton is, that they set at naught books and traditions, and spoke not what men but what they thought. A man should learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within, more than the lustre of the firmament of bards and sages. Yet he dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his. In every work of genius we recognize our own rejected thoughts: they come back to us with a certain alienated majesty. Great works of art have no more affecting lesson for us than this. They teach us to abide by our spontaneous impression with good-humored inflexibility then most when the whole cry of voices is on the other side. Else, to-morrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense precisely what we have thought and felt all the time, and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another.
There is a time in every man's education when he arrives at the conviction that envy is ignorance; that imitation is suicide; that he must take himself for better, for worse, as his portion; that though the wide universe is full of good, no kernel of nourishing corn can come to him but through his toil bestowed on that plot of ground which is given to him to till. The power which resides in him is new in nature, and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does he know until he has tried. Not for nothing one face, one character, one fact, makes much impression on him, and another none. This sculpture in the memory is not without preestablished harmony. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might testify of that particular ray. We but half express ourselves, and are ashamed of that divine idea which each of us represents. It may be safely trusted as proportionate and of good issues, so it be faithfully imparted, but God will not have his work made manifest by cowards. A man is relieved and gay when he has put his heart into his work and done his best; but what he has said or done otherwise, shall give him no peace. It is a deliverance which does not deliver. In the attempt his genius deserts him; no muse befriends; no invention, no hope.
Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string. Accept the place the divine providence has found for you, the society of your contemporaries, the connection of events. Great men have always done so, and confided themselves childlike to the genius of their age, betraying their perception that the absolutely trustworthy was seated at their heart, working through their hands, predominating in all their being. And we are now men, and must accept in the highest mind the same transcendent destiny; and not minors and invalids in a protected corner, not cowards fleeing before a revolution, but guides, redeemers, and benefactors, obeying the Almighty effort, and advancing on Chaos and the Dark.
What pretty oracles nature yields us on this text, in the face and behaviour of children, babes, and even brutes! That divided and rebel mind, that distrust of a sentiment because our arithmetic has computed the strength and means opposed to our purpose, these have not. Their mind being whole, their eye is as yet unconquered, and when we look in their faces, we are disconcerted. Infancy conforms to nobody: all conform to it, so that one babe commonly makes four or five out of the adults who prattle and play to it. So God has armed youth and puberty and manhood no less with its own piquancy and charm, and made it enviable and gracious and its claims not to be put by, if it will stand by itself. Do not think the youth has no force, because he cannot speak to you and me. Hark! in the next room his voice is sufficiently clear and emphatic. It seems he knows how to speak to his contemporaries. Bashful or bold, then, he will know how to make us seniors very unnecessary.
SPIRITUAL LAWS
When the act of reflection takes place in the mind, when we look at ourselves in the light of thought, we discover that our life is embosomed in beauty. Behind us, as we go, all things assume pleasing forms, as clouds do far off. Not only things familiar and stale, but even the tragic and terrible, are comely, as they take their place in the pictures of memory. The river-bank, the weed at the water-side, the old house, the foolish person, — however neglected in the passing, — have a grace in the past. Even the corpse that has lain in the chambers has added a solemn ornament to the house. The soul will not know either deformity or pain. If, in the hours of clear reason, we should speak the severest truth, we should say, that we had never made a sacrifice. In these hours the mind seems so great, that nothing can be taken from us that seems much. All loss, all pain, is particular; the universe remains to the heart unhurt. Neither vexations nor calamities abate our trust. No man ever stated his griefs as lightly as he might. Allow for exaggeration in the most patient and sorely ridden hack that ever was driven. For it is only the finite that has wrought and suffered; the infinite lies stretched in smiling repose.
The intellectual life may be kept clean and healthful, if man will live the life of nature, and not import into his mind difficulties which are none of his. No man need be perplexed in his speculations. Let him do and say what strictly belongs to him, and, though very ignorant of books, his nature shall not yield him any intellectual obstructions and doubts. Our young people are diseased with the theological problems of original sin, origin of evil, predestination, and the like. These never presented a practical difficulty to any man, — never darkened across any man's road, who did not go out of his way to seek them. These are the soul's mumps, and measles, and whooping-coughs, and those who have not caught them cannot describe their health or prescribe the cure. A simple mind will not know these enemies. It is quite another thing that he should be able to give account of his faith, and expound to another the theory of his self-union and freedom. This requires rare gifts. Yet, without this self-knowledge, there may be a sylvan strength and integrity in that which he is. "A few strong instincts and a few plain rules" suffice us.
My will never gave the images in my mind the rank they now take. The regular course of studies, the years of academical and professional education, have not yielded me better facts than some idle books under the bench at the Latin School. What we do not call education is more precious than that which we call so. We form no guess, at the time of receiving a thought, of its comparative value. And education often wastes its effort in attempts to thwart and balk this natural magnetism, which is sure to select what belongs to it.
In like manner, our moral nature is vitiated by any interference of our will. People represent virtue as a struggle, and take to themselves great airs upon their attainments, and the question is everywhere vexed, when a noble nature is commended, whether the man is not better who strives with temptation. But there is no merit in the matter. Either God is there, or he is not there. We love characters in proportion as they are impulsive and spontaneous. The less a man thinks or knows about his virtues, the better we like him. Timoleon's victories are the best victories; which ran and flowed like Homer's verses, Plutarch said. When we see a soul whose acts are all regal, graceful, and pleasant as roses, we must thank God that such things can be and are, and not turn sourly on the angel, and say, `Crump is a better man with his grunting resistance to all his native devils.'
Not less conspicuous is the preponderance of nature over will in all practical life. There is less intention in history than we ascribe to it. We impute deep-laid, far-sighted plans to Caesar and Napoleon; but the best of their power was in nature, not in them. Men of an extraordinary success, in their honest moments, have always sung, `Not unto us, not unto us.' According to the faith of their times, they have built altars to Fortune, or to Destiny, or to St. Julian. Their success lay in their parallelism to the course of thought, which found in them an unobstructed channel; and the wonders of which they were the visible conductors seemed to the eye their deed. Did the wires generate the galvanism? It is even true that there was less in them on which they could reflect, than in another; as the virtue of a pipe is to be smooth and hollow. That which externally seemed will and immovableness was willingness and self-annihilation. Could Shakspeare give a theory of Shakspeare? Could ever a man of prodigious mathematical genius convey to others any insight into his methods? If he could communicate that secret, it would instantly lose its exaggerated value, blending with the daylight and the vital energy the power to stand and to go.
INTELLECT & INTELLIGENCE
Every substance is negatively electric to that which stands above it in the chemical tables, positively to that which stands belowit. Water dissolves wood, and iron, and salt; air dissolves water;electric fire dissolves air, but the intellect dissolves fire,gravity, laws, method, and the subtlest unnamed relations of nature,in its resistless menstruum. Intellect lies behind genius, which isintellect constructive. Intellect is the simple power anterior toall action or construction. Gladly would I unfold in calm degrees anatural history of the intellect, but what man has yet been able tomark the steps and boundaries of that transparent essence? The firstquestions are always to be asked, and the wisest doctor is gravelledby the inquisitiveness of a child. How can we speak of the action ofthe mind under any divisions, as of its knowledge, of its ethics, ofits works, and so forth, since it melts will into perception,knowledge into act? Each becomes the other. Itself alone is. Itsvision is not like the vision of the eye, but is union with thethings known.
Intellect and intellection signify to the common earconsideration of abstract truth. The considerations of time andplace, of you and me, of profit and hurt, tyrannize over most men'sminds. Intellect separates the fact considered from _you_, from alllocal and personal reference, and discerns it as if it existed forits own sake. Heraclitus looked upon the affections as dense andcolored mists. In the fog of good and evil affections, it is hardfor man to walk forward in a straight line. Intellect is void ofaffection, and sees an object as it stands in the light of science,cool and disengaged. The intellect goes out of the individual,floats over its own personality, and regards it as a fact, and not as_I_ and _mine_. He who is immersed in what concerns person or placecannot see the problem of existence. This the intellect alwaysponders. Nature shows all things formed and bound. The intellectpierces the form, overleaps the wall, detects intrinsic likenessbetween remote things, and reduces all things into a few principles.
The making a fact the subject of thought raises it. All thatmass of mental and moral phenomena, which we do not make objects ofvoluntary thought, come within the power of fortune; they constitutethe circumstance of daily life; they are subject to change, to fear,and hope. Every man beholds his human condition with a degree ofmelancholy. As a ship aground is battered by the waves, so man,imprisoned in mortal life, lies open to the mercy of coming events.But a truth, separated by the intellect, is no longer a subject ofdestiny. We behold it as a god upraised above care and fear. And soany fact in our life, or any record of our fancies or reflections,disentangled from the web of our unconsciousness, becomes an objectimpersonal and immortal. It is the past restored, but embalmed. Abetter art than that of Egypt has taken fear and corruption out ofit. It is eviscerated of care. It is offered for science. What isaddressed to us for contemplation does not threaten us, but makes usintellectual beings.
The growth of the intellect is spontaneous in every expansion.The mind that grows could not predict the times, the means, the modeof that spontaneity. God enters by a private door into everyindividual. Long prior to the age of reflection is the thinking ofthe mind. Out of darkness, it came insensibly into the marvellouslight of to-day. In the period of infancy it accepted and disposedof all impressions from the surrounding creation after its own way.Whatever any mind doth or saith is after a law; and this native lawremains over it after it has come to reflection or conscious thought.In the most worn, pedantic, introverted self-tormenter's life, thegreatest part is incalculable by him, unforeseen, unimaginable, andmust be, until he can take himself up by his own ears. What am I?What has my will done to make me that I am? Nothing. I have beenfloated into this thought, this hour, this connection of events, bysecret currents of might and mind, and my ingenuity and wilfulnesshave not thwarted, have not aided to an appreciable degree.
Our spontaneous action is always the best. You cannot, withyour best deliberation and heed, come so close to any question asyour spontaneous glance shall bring you, whilst you rise from yourbed, or walk abroad in the morning after meditating the matter beforesleep on the previous night. Our thinking is a pious reception. Ourtruth of thought is therefore vitiated as much by too violentdirection given by our will, as by too great negligence. We do notdetermine what we will think. We only open our senses, clear away,as we can, all obstruction from the fact, and suffer the intellect tosee. We have little control over our thoughts. We are the prisonersof ideas. They catch us up for moments into their heaven, and sofully engage us, that we take no thought for the morrow, gaze likechildren, without an effort to make them our own. By and by we fallout of that rapture, bethink us where we have been, what we haveseen, and repeat, as truly as we can, what we have beheld. As far aswe can recall these ecstasies, we carry away in the ineffaceablememory the result, and all men and all the ages confirm it. It iscalled Truth. But the moment we cease to report, and attempt tocorrect and contrive, it is not truth.
ARTS
The soul is progressive, it never quite repeats itself, but in every act attempts the production of a new and fairer whole. This appears in works both of the useful and the fine arts, if we employ the popular distinction of works according to their aim, either at use or beauty. Thus in our fine arts, not imitation, but creation is the aim. In landscapes, the painter should give the suggestion of a fairer creation than we know. The details, the prose of nature he should omit, and give us only the spirit and splendor. He should know that the landscape has beauty for his eye, because it expresses a thought which is to him good: and this, because the same power which sees through his eyes, is seen in that spectacle; and he will come to value the expression of nature, and not nature itself, and so exalt in his copy, the features that please him. He will give the gloom of gloom, and the sunshine of sunshine. In a portrait, he must inscribe the character, and not the features, and must esteem the man who sits to him as himself only an imperfect picture or likeness of the aspiring original within.
What is that abridgment and selection we observe in all spiritual activity, but itself the creative impulse? for it is the inlet of that higher illumination which teaches to convey a larger sense by simpler symbols. What is a man but nature's finer success in self-explication? What is a man but a finer and compacter landscape than the horizon figures, — nature's eclecticism? and what is his speech, his love of painting, love of nature, but a still finer success? all the weary miles and tons of space and bulk left out, and the spirit or moral of it contracted into a musical word, or the most cunning stroke of the pencil?
But the artist must employ the symbols in use in his day and nation, to convey his enlarged sense to his fellow-men. Thus the new in art is always formed out of the old. The Genius of the Hour sets his ineffaceable seal on the work, and gives it an inexpressible charm for the imagination. As far as the spiritual character of the period overpowers the artist, and finds expression in his work, so far it will retain a certain grandeur, and will represent to future beholders the Unknown, the Inevitable, the Divine. No man can quite exclude this element of Necessity from his labor. No man can quite emancipate himself from his age and country, or produce a model in which the education, the religion, the politics, usages, and arts, of his times shall have no share. Though he were never so original, never so wilful and fantastic, he cannot wipe out of his work every trace of the thoughts amidst which it grew. The very avoidance betrays the usage he avoids. Above his will, and out of his sight, he is necessitated, by the air he breathes, and the idea on which he and his contemporaries live and toil, to share the manner of his times, without knowing what that manner is. Now that which is inevitable in the work has a higher charm than individual talent can ever give, inasmuch as the artist's pen or chisel seems to have been held and guided by a gigantic hand to inscribe a line in the history of the human race. This circumstance gives a value to the Egyptian hieroglyphics, to the Indian, Chinese, and Mexican idols, however gross and shapeless. They denote the height of the human soul in that hour, and were not fantastic, but sprung from a necessity as deep as the world. Shall I now add, that the whole extant product of the plastic arts has herein its highest value, _as history_; as a stroke drawn in the portrait of that fate, perfect and beautiful, according to whose ordinations all beings advance to their beatitude?
Thus, historically viewed, it has been the office of art to educate the perception of beauty. We are immersed in beauty, but our eyes have no clear vision. It needs, by the exhibition of single traits, to assist and lead the dormant taste. We carve and paint, or we behold what is carved and painted, as students of the mystery of Form. The virtue of art lies in detachment, in sequestering one object from the embarrassing variety. Until one thing comes out from the connection of things, there can be enjoyment, contemplation, but no thought. Our happiness and unhappiness are unproductive. The infant lies in a pleasing trance, but his individual character and his practical power depend on his daily progress in the separation of things, and dealing with one at a time. Love and all the passions concentrate all existence around a single form. It is the habit of certain minds to give an all-excluding fulness to the object, the thought, the word, they alight upon, and to make that for the time the deputy of the world. These are the artists, the orators, the leaders of society. The power to detach, and to magnify by detaching, is the essence of rhetoric in the hands of the orator and the poet. This rhetoric, or power to fix the momentary eminency of an object, — so remarkable in Burke, in Byron, in Carlyle, — the painter and sculptor exhibit in color and in stone. The power depends on the depth of the artist's insight of that object he contemplates. For every object has its roots in central nature, and may of course be so exhibited to us as to represent the world. Therefore, each work of genius is the tyrant of the hour, and concentrates attention on itself.
The soul is progressive, it never quite repeats itself, but in every act attempts the production of a new and fairer whole. This appears in works both of the useful and the fine arts, if we employ the popular distinction of works according to their aim, either at use or beauty. Thus in our fine arts, not imitation, but creation is the aim. In landscapes, the painter should give the suggestion of a fairer creation than we know. The details, the prose of nature he should omit, and give us only the spirit and splendor. He should know that the landscape has beauty for his eye, because it expresses a thought which is to him good: and this, because the same power which sees through his eyes, is seen in that spectacle; and he will come to value the expression of nature, and not nature itself, and so exalt in his copy, the features that please him. He will give the gloom of gloom, and the sunshine of sunshine. In a portrait, he must inscribe the character, and not the features, and must esteem the man who sits to him as himself only an imperfect picture or likeness of the aspiring original within.
What is that abridgment and selection we observe in all spiritual activity, but itself the creative impulse? for it is the inlet of that higher illumination which teaches to convey a larger sense by simpler symbols. What is a man but nature's finer success in self-explication? What is a man but a finer and compacter landscape than the horizon figures, — nature's eclecticism? and what is his speech, his love of painting, love of nature, but a still finer success? all the weary miles and tons of space and bulk left out, and the spirit or moral of it contracted into a musical word, or the most cunning stroke of the pencil?
But the artist must employ the symbols in use in his day and nation, to convey his enlarged sense to his fellow-men. Thus the new in art is always formed out of the old. The Genius of the Hour sets his ineffaceable seal on the work, and gives it an inexpressible charm for the imagination. As far as the spiritual character of the period overpowers the artist, and finds expression in his work, so far it will retain a certain grandeur, and will represent to future beholders the Unknown, the Inevitable, the Divine. No man can quite exclude this element of Necessity from his labor. No man can quite emancipate himself from his age and country, or produce a model in which the education, the religion, the politics, usages, and arts, of his times shall have no share. Though he were never so original, never so wilful and fantastic, he cannot wipe out of his work every trace of the thoughts amidst which it grew. The very avoidance betrays the usage he avoids. Above his will, and out of his sight, he is necessitated, by the air he breathes, and the idea on which he and his contemporaries live and toil, to share the manner of his times, without knowing what that manner is. Now that which is inevitable in the work has a higher charm than individual talent can ever give, inasmuch as the artist's pen or chisel seems to have been held and guided by a gigantic hand to inscribe a line in the history of the human race. This circumstance gives a value to the Egyptian hieroglyphics, to the Indian, Chinese, and Mexican idols, however gross and shapeless. They denote the height of the human soul in that hour, and were not fantastic, but sprung from a necessity as deep as the world. Shall I now add, that the whole extant product of the plastic arts has herein its highest value, _as history_; as a stroke drawn in the portrait of that fate, perfect and beautiful, according to whose ordinations all beings advance to their beatitude?
Thus, historically viewed, it has been the office of art to educate the perception of beauty. We are immersed in beauty, but our eyes have no clear vision. It needs, by the exhibition of single traits, to assist and lead the dormant taste. We carve and paint, or we behold what is carved and painted, as students of the mystery of Form. The virtue of art lies in detachment, in sequestering one object from the embarrassing variety. Until one thing comes out from the connection of things, there can be enjoyment, contemplation, but no thought. Our happiness and unhappiness are unproductive. The infant lies in a pleasing trance, but his individual character and his practical power depend on his daily progress in the separation of things, and dealing with one at a time. Love and all the passions concentrate all existence around a single form. It is the habit of certain minds to give an all-excluding fulness to the object, the thought, the word, they alight upon, and to make that for the time the deputy of the world. These are the artists, the orators, the leaders of society. The power to detach, and to magnify by detaching, is the essence of rhetoric in the hands of the orator and the poet. This rhetoric, or power to fix the momentary eminency of an object, — so remarkable in Burke, in Byron, in Carlyle, — the painter and sculptor exhibit in color and in stone. The power depends on the depth of the artist's insight of that object he contemplates. For every object has its roots in central nature, and may of course be so exhibited to us as to represent the world. Therefore, each work of genius is the tyrant of the hour, and concentrates attention on itself.
FACTS OF NATURE
There are days which occur in this climate, at almost any season of the year, wherein the world reaches its perfection, when the air, the heavenly bodies, and the earth, make a harmony, as if nature would indulge her offspring; when, in these bleak upper sides of the planet, nothing is to desire that we have heard of the happiest latitudes, and we bask in the shining hours of Florida and Cuba; when everything that has life gives sign of satisfaction, and the cattle that lie on the ground seem to have great and tranquil thoughts. These halcyons may be looked for with a little more assurance in that pure October weather, which we distinguish by the name of the Indian Summer. The day, immeasurably long, sleeps over the broad hills and warm wide fields. To have lived through all its sunny hours, seems longevity enough. The solitary places do not seem quite lonely. At the gates of the forest, the surprised man of the world is forced to leave his city estimates of great and small, wise and foolish. The knapsack of custom falls off his back with the first step he makes into these precincts. Here is sanctity which shames our religions, and reality which discredits our heroes. Here we find nature to be the circumstance which dwarfs every other circumstance, and judges like a god all men that come to her.
We have crept out of our close and crowded houses into the night and morning, and we see what majestic beauties daily wrap us in their bosom. How willingly we would escape the barriers which render them comparatively impotent, escape the sophistication and second thought, and suffer nature to intrance us. The tempered light of the woods is like a perpetual morning, and is stimulating and heroic. The anciently reported spells of these places creep on us. The stems of pines, hemlocks, and oaks, almost gleam like iron on the excited eye. The incommunicable trees begin to persuade us to live with them, and quit our life of solemn trifles. Here no history, or church, or state, is interpolated on the divine sky and the immortal year. How easily we might walk onward into the opening landscape, absorbed by new pictures, and by thoughts fast succeeding each other, until by degrees the recollection of home was crowded out of the mind, all memory obliterated by the tyranny of the present, and we were led in triumph by nature.
These enchantments are medicinal, they sober and heal us. These are plain pleasures, kindly and native to us. We come to our own, and make friends with matter, which the ambitious chatter of the schools would persuade us to despise. We never can part with it; the mind loves its old home: as water to our thirst, so is the rock, the ground, to our eyes, and hands, and feet. It is firm water: it is cold flame: what health, what affinity! Ever an old friend, ever like a dear friend and brother, when we chat affectedly with strangers, comes in this honest face, and takes a grave liberty with us, and shames us out of our nonsense. Cities give not the human senses room enough. We go out daily and nightly to feed the eyes on the horizon, and require so much scope, just as we need water for our bath. There are all degrees of natural influence, from these quarantine powers of nature, up to her dearest and gravest ministrations to the imagination and the soul.
There is the bucket of cold water from the spring, the wood-fire to which the chilled traveller rushes for safety, — and there is the sublime moral of autumn and of noon. We nestle in nature, and draw our living as parasites from her roots and grains, and we receive glances from the heavenly bodies, which call us to solitude, and foretell the remotest future. The blue zenith is the point in which romance and reality meet. I think, if we should be rapt away into all that we dream of heaven, and should converse with Gabriel and Uriel, the upper sky would be all that would remain of our furniture.
CULTURE
The word of ambition at the present day is Culture. Whilst all the world is in pursuit of power, and of wealth as a means of power, culture corrects the theory of success. A man is the prisoner of his power. A topical memory makes him an almanac; a talent for debate, a disputant; skill to get money makes him a miser, that is, a beggar. Culture reduces these inflammations by invoking the aid of other powers against the dominant talent, and by appealing to the rank of powers. It watches success. For performance, Nature has no mercy, and sacrifices the performer to get it done; makes a dropsy or a tympany of him. If she wants a thumb, she makes one at the cost of arms and legs, and any excess of power in one part is usually paid for at once by some defect in a contiguous part.
Our efficiency depends so much on our concentration, that Nature usually in the instances where a marked man is sent into the world, overloads him with bias, sacrificing his symmetry to his working power. It is said, no man can write but one book; and if a man have a defect, it is apt to leave its impression on all his performances. If she creates a policeman like Fouche, he is made up of suspicions and of plots to circumvent them. "The air," said Fouche, "is full of poniards." The physician Sanctorius spent his life in a pair of scales, weighing his food. Lord Coke valued Chaucer highly, because the Canon Yeman's Tale illustrates the statute Hen. V. Chap. 4, against alchemy. I saw a man who believed the principal mischiefs in the English state were derived from the devotion to musical concerts. A freemason, not long since, set out to explain to this country, that the principal cause of the success of General Washington, was, the aid he derived from the freemasons.
But worse than the harping on one string, Nature has secured individualism, by giving the private person a high conceit of his weight in the system. The pest of society is egotists. There are dull and bright, sacred and profane, coarse and fine egotists. 'Tis a disease that, like influenza, falls on all constitutions. In the distemper known to physicians as chorea, the patient sometimes turns round, and continues to spin slowly on one spot. Is egotism a metaphysical varioloid of this malady? The man runs round a ring formed by his own talent, falls into an admiration of it, and loses relation to the world. It is a tendency in all minds. One of its annoying forms, is a craving for sympathy. The sufferers parade their miseries, tear the lint from their bruises, reveal their indictable crimes, that you may pity them. They like sickness, because physical pain will extort some show of interest from the bystanders, as we have seen children, who, finding themselves of no account when grown people come in, will cough till they choke, to draw attention.
This distemper is the scourge of talent, — of artists, inventors, and philosophers. Eminent spiritualists shall have an incapacity of putting their act or word aloof from them, and seeing it bravely for the nothing it is. Beware of the man who says, "I am on the eve of a revelation." It is speedily punished, inasmuch as this habit invites men to humor it, and by treating the patient tenderly, to shut him up in a narrower selfism, and exclude him from the great world of God's cheerful fallible men and women. Let us rather be insulted, whilst we are insultable. Religious literature has eminent examples, and if we run over our private list of poets, critics, philanthropists, and philosophers, we shall find them infected with this dropsy and elephantiasis, which we ought to have tapped.
This goitre of egotism is so frequent among notable persons, that we must infer some strong necessity in nature which it subserves; such as we see in the sexual attraction. The preservation of the species was a point of such necessity, that Nature has secured it at all hazards by immensely overloading the passion, at the risk of perpetual crime and disorder. So egotism has its root in the cardinal necessity by which each individual persists to be what he is.
BEAUTY
The motive of science was the extension of man, on all sides, into Nature, till his hands should touch the stars, his eyes see through the earth, his ears understand the language of beast and bird, and the sense of the wind; and, through his sympathy, heaven and earth should talk with him. But that is not our science. These geologies, chemistries, astronomies, seem to make wise, but they leave us where they found us. The invention is of use to the inventor, of questionable help to any other. The formulas of science are like the papers in your pocket-book, of no value to any but the owner. Science in England, in America, is jealous of theory, hates the name of love and moral purpose. There's a revenge for this inhumanity. What manner of man does science make? The boy is not attracted. He says, I do not wish to be such a kind of man as my professor is. The collector has dried all the plants in his herbal, but he has lost weight and humor. He has got all snakes and lizards in his phials, but science has done for him also, and has put the man into a bottle.
Our reliance on the physician is a kind of despair of ourselves. The clergy have bronchitis, which does not seem a certificate of spiritual health. Macready thought it came of the falsetto of their voicing. An Indian prince, Tisso, one day riding in the forest, saw a herd of elk sporting. "See how happy," he said, "these browsing elks are! Why should not priests, lodged and fed comfortably in the temples, also amuse themselves?" Returning home, he imparted this reflection to the king. The king, on the next day, conferred the sovereignty on him, saying, "Prince, administer this empire for seven days: at the termination of that period, I shall put thee to death." At the end of the seventh day, the king inquired, "From what cause hast thou become so emaciated?" He answered, "From the horror of death." The monarch rejoined: "Live, my child, and be wise. Thou hast ceased to take recreation, saying to thyself, in seven days I shall be put to death. These priests in the temple incessantly meditate on death; how can they enter into healthful diversions?" But the men of science or the doctors or the clergy are not victims of their pursuits, more than others. The miller, the lawyer, and the merchant, dedicate themselves to their own details, and do not come out men of more force. Have they divination, grand aims, hospitality of soul, and the equality to any event, which we demand in man, or only the reactions of the mill, of the wares, of the chicane?
No object really interests us but man, and in man only his superiorities; and, though we are aware of a perfect law in Nature, it has fascination for us only through its relation to him, or, as it is rooted in the mind. At the birth of Winckelmann, more than a hundred years ago, side by side with this arid, departmental, post mortem science, rose an enthusiasm in the study of Beauty; and perhaps some sparks from it may yet light a conflagration in the other. Knowledge of men, knowledge of manners, the power of form, and our sensibility to personal influence, never go out of fashion. These are facts of a science which we study without book, whose teachers and subjects are always near us.So inveterate is our habit of criticism, that much of our knowledge in this direction belongs to the chapter of pathology. The crowd in the street oftener furnishes degradations than angels or redeemers: but they all prove the transparency. Every spirit makes its house; and we can give a shrewd guess from the house to the inhabitant. But not less does Nature furnish us with every sign of grace and goodness. The delicious faces of children, the beauty of school-girls, "the sweet seriousness of sixteen," the lofty air of well-born, well-bred boys, the passionate histories in the looks and manners of youth and early manhood, and the varied power in all that well-known company that escort us through life, — we know how these forms thrill, paralyze, provoke, inspire, and enlarge us.Beauty is the form under which the intellect prefers to study the world. All privilege is that of beauty; for there are many beauties; as, of general nature, of the human face and form, of manners, of brain, or method, moral beauty, or beauty of the soul.
AGRICULTURE
Our roads are always changing their direction, and after a man has built at great cost a stone house, a new road is opened, and he finds himself a mile or two from the highway. Then our people are not stationary, like those of old countries, but always alert to better themselves, and will remove from town to town as a new market opens, or a better farm is to be had, and do not wish to spend too much on their buildings.
The Commissioner advises the farmers to sell their cattle and their hay in the fall, and buy again in the spring. But we farmers always know what our interest dictates, and do accordingly. We have no choice in this matter; our way is but too plain. Down below, where manure is cheap, and hay dear, they will sell their oxen in November; but for me to sell my cattle and my produce in the fall, would be to sell my farm, for I should have no manure to renew a crop in the spring. And thus Necessity farms it, necessity finds out when to go to Brighton, and when to feed in the stall, better than Mr. Colman can tell us.
But especially observe what is said throughout these Reports of the model farms and model farmers. One would think that Mr. D. and Major S. were the pillars of the Commonwealth. The good Commissioner takes off his hat when he approaches them, distrusts the value of "his feeble praise," and repeats his compliments as often as their names are introduced. And yet, in my opinion, Mr. D. with all his knowledge and present skill, would starve in two years on any one of fifty poor farms in this neighborhood, on each of which now a farmer manages to get a good living. Mr. D. inherited a farm, and spends on it every year from other resources; other-wise his farm had ruined him long since; ― and as for the Major he never got rich by his skill in making land produce, but by his skill in making men produce. The truth is, a farm will not make an honest man rich in money. I do not know of a single instance, in which a man has honestly got rich by farming alone. It cannot be done. The way in which men who have farms grow rich, is either by other resources; or by trade; or by getting their labor for nothing; or by other methods of which I could tell you many sad anecdotes. What does the Agricultural Surveyor know of all this? What can he know? He is the victim of the "Reports," that are sent him of particular farms. He cannot go behind the estimates to know how the contracts were made, and how the sales were effected. The true men of skill, the poor farmers who by the sweat of their face, without an inheritance, and without offence to their conscience, have reared a family of valuable citizens and matrons to the state, reduced a stubborn soil to a good farm, although their buildings are many of them shabby, are the only right subjects of this Report; yet these make no figure in it. These should be holden up to imitation, and their methods detailed; yet their houses are very uninviting and unconspicuous to State Commissioners. So with these premiums to Farms, and premiums to Cattle Shows. The class that I describe, must pay the premium which is awarded to the rich. Yet the premium obviously ought to be given for the good management of a poor farm.
In this strain the Farmer proceeded, adding many special criticisms. He had a good opinion of the Surveyor, and acquitted him of any blame in the matter, but was incorrigible in his skepticism concerning the benefits conferred by legislatures on the agriculture of Massachusetts. I believe that my friend is a little stiff and inconvertible in his own opinions, and that there is another side to be heard; but so much wisdom seemed to lie under his statement, that it deserved a record.
ARCHITECTURE
Architecture is the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by man for whatsoever uses, that the sight of them may contribute to his mental health, power, and pleasure. It is very necessary, in the outset of all inquiry, to distinguish between Architecture and Building. To build, literally, to confirm, is by common understanding to put together and adjust the several pieces of any edifice or receptacle of a considerable size. But building does not become architecture merely by the stability of what it erects.
Let us, therefore, at once confine the name to that art which, taking up and admitting, as conditions of its working, the necessities and common uses of the building, impresses on its form certain characters venerable or beautiful, but otherwise unnecessary. It may not be always easy to draw the line so sharply and simply; because there are few buildings which have not some pretence or color of being architectural; neither can there be any architecture which is not based on building; but it is perfectly easy, and very necessary, to keep the ideas distinct, and to understand fully that Architecture concerns itself only with those characters of an edifice which are above and beyond its common use.
The two virtues of architecture which we can justly weigh, are, we said, its strength or good construction, and its beauty or good decoration. Consider first, therefore, what you mean when you say a building is well constructed or well built; you do not merely mean that it answers its purpose,- this is much, and many modern buildings fail of this much; but if it be verily well built, it must answer this purpose in the simplest way, and with no over-expenditure of means.
Make yourselves, then, artists, not alone in respect of mere architecture itself, but in respect also of its allied arts; in respect of architectural sculpture, in respect of painted decoration, in respect of figure-sculpture and of figure-painting in forms suited to architecture; of painted glass, mosaic work, metal work, and all the subordinate arts. Architecture has its political Use; public Buildings being the Ornament of a Country; it establishes a Nation, draws People and Commerce; makes the People love their native Country, which Passion is the Original of all great Actions in a Commonwealth.
Architecture aims at Eternity; and therefore the only Thing incapable of Modes and Fashions in its Principals, the Orders. The Orders are not only Roman and Greek, but Phoenician, Hebrew, and Assyrian; therefore being founded upon the Experience of all Ages, promoted by the vast Treasures of all the great Monarchs, and Skill of the greatest Artists and Geometricians, every one emulating each other; and Experiments in this kind being greatly expensive, and Errors incorrigible, is the Reason that the Principles of Architecture are now rather the Study of Antiquity than Fancy.
ART EDUCATION
The old approach to writing American educational history has been to shape the report so that all things seem to be moving in an upward trajectory towards some far, far better day. The quaint past was shrouded by the historian in a miasma of superstition. Public schools, advocated by noble and forward-looking heroes were the stairway to an enlightened future that would be among the metaphorical stars. Progress, these writers believed, was evident-it was predestined.
Thus, Frederick Logan wrote an art education history titled The Growth of Art in American Schools . The title has a message, although a close reading of the book reveals that Logan had many doubts about predicting a necessarily rosy future for art education. While he knew that learning about art was not just a matter of school study, the hope of the future seemed to be in schools. Logan 's book implied increasing sophistication in art programs in the schools and suggested a future that had to be good and less troublesome than the past.
In 1989 Elliot Eisner presented an address in which he questioned how history research contributed to the field of art education. The presentation was titled "The Efflorescence of the History of Art Education: Advance into the Past or Retreat.from the Present?" With such a title, it may not be surprising that Eisner's view of art education historical research was not overly warm. "Efflorescence" has an aura of luxuriant bacterial growth, of fungi on a very dead and rotten creature, the implication being that historical writers are like maggots on the decaying and useless corpse of days long dead.Eisner set up one criterion for what constitutes worthwhile research in educational matters. These problems addressed must be defined at the outset of research.
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
Abnormal psychology aims to make its subject matter comprehensible to the common reader, because of the clear communal and individual value of such perception. It therefore undergoes the penalty of being obligatory to start with some clarification of the definite ways in which similar words, with different senses, are to be used in the discussion to follow. Words were employed prior to the appearance of dictionaries. They are merely human tools, invented primarily for the usual functions of everyday life, which antedates the development of science. When science builds up, its vocabulary must be drawn from the language of everyday life, or other fairly new terms and signs must be created for its particular purposes.
Abnormal psychology, certainly, deals with abnormal mental progressions. But this is an unclear definition unless it is very obvious what is defined by "abnormal," by "mental" and by "progressions." In addition, the entire phrase "abnormal psychology" may be compared with some other phrases, involving issues of a collateral nature, which often overlie one another. It is not sufficient to say that abnormal psychology copes with abnormal mental progressions, since psychotherapy, mental hygiene, psychical study, psychiatric therapy, and scientific psychology also do so. In fact, much of what is considered as literature is mainly related to abnormal experiences and associations, given that a lot of authors and readers concur that normal feelings and circumstances are hardly worth literary depiction. So how generally is abnormal psychology different from these closely correlated issues?
Mental hygiene may be differentiated from either psychiatry or abnormal psychology. The mental hygienist is a hygienic engineer in the sphere of psychology. At all times there have been "happiness experts" - theorists, moralists, priests, educators, and sages - who have sought to advise the set of laws for comfort, affluence, harmony of mind, and long life, both now and in the world to come. However, in former times these laws of behavior have hardly been based on systematic study; they have rarely been vulnerable of display by the inflexible principles of evidence; they have in its place embodied dogmas, articles of faith, and personal ideals.
Abnormal psychology may now be differentiated by comparing it with these diverse connected issues and by signifying by more constructive means the nature of its interests and projects. All the spheres, as we shall see, overlie, and make various joint hand-outs to one another. Abnormal psychology is a broad and methodical discipline which partly lies beneath all these other ventures. It looks for observing, contrasting, defining, and relating the details of abnormal behavior, thinking, and sensations for the main purpose of understanding them. It comes close to these occurrences in much the identical way that the mathematician and the botanist revise their subject matters.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Wang, Haertel, and Walberg ( 1994) confirm Charles' statement when they report in their article, "What helps student learn?," that when data from both research analyses and surveys from experts are combined, classroom management tops a list of twenty-eight categories that most influence learning. Thus, for many educators, Charles' statement is as true today as it was almost two decades ago when it was written.
The United States is, of course, not alone in its recognition of the importance to teachers of having sound theory and using effective practices when it comes to classroom management. Lord Elton's upsetting report in Great Britain on discipline in schools states that, "teachers group management skills are probably the single most important factor in achieving good standards of classroom behaviour".
Reinforcing this view, Schubert ( 1954) reports that one of the most perplexing problems facing many teachers in our schools today - particularly beginning teachers - is maintaining control in the classroom. Discipline has been, and continues to be, a problem for many teachers.
For teachers who are having discipline problems, the temptation exists to grab any strategy that works. A sailor from a sinking ship who cannot swim wants only to be thrown a flotation ring; he does not want to be taught the theory behind swimming. Hopefully, you are not in an analogous position. Instead, you have the luxury to examine and begin to form a philosophy of education, study available classroom management models, and select a model or models consistent with your fundamental beliefs. Once you select a model, it will dictate the day-to-day discipline strategies you implement.
Most states require that principals or other designated administrators/ supervisors formally evaluate your teaching by sitting in on your classes. Typically, a Sample Instructional Evaluation Form is used to collect data. Such forms usually include a question on classroom management. It is clear from the categories of questions included on such a teacher evaluation form that both content expertise and pedagogical expertise will be - in fact, should be - evaluated. Your competence in the eyes of others will be judged by your ability to perform in each of the questioned areas. Your competence in your own eyes will similarly be judged. To be forewarned is to be forearmed. Consider yourself forewarned regarding the importance the profession ascribes to a teacher's ability to manage his or her classroom.
Educational Psychology
understanding of educational processes and to correct his misconceptions. If the educational psychologist is successful in this undertaking, the student will be helped to see education and its processes in quite a different light - that is, he will see possibilities, relationships, and problems he never saw before. And, by reason of having acquired these new insights, he is likely to become a more effective teacher than he would be if he had not undertaken the study of educational psychology. For instance, the person who has a good psychological understanding of educational processes is not only able to identify more problems in a given classroom situation than can be seen by persons with only a nonscientific understanding of education, but he is also in a position to find more solutions to these problems. The person who has a nonscientific and consequently incomplete understanding of educational processes is more likely to encounter difficulties because he is not aware of what are the really crucial and significant problems.
By the word "learner," we mean the pupils or students who individually and collectively comprise the classroom group - the persons on whose behalf the educational program exists and operates. A great deal of what happens in the classroom can be explained in terms of the personalities, developmental stages, and psychosocial problems of students who comprise the class. Educational psychology can for example, help a fifth-grade teacher become more effective by providing him with the basis for developing a better understanding of children in general, of children around the ages of eleven and twelve, and of the particular children in his class. Educational psychologists can also help this teacher by telling him something about the patterns of behavior that commonly occur whenever individuals interact with one another.
Thus the hunches of successful teachers are more likely to prove correct than the hunches of unsuccessful ones. However, we do not always have to base our predictions on hunches, and this is one of the reasons why courses such as educational psychology are a part of the professional curriculum for teachers. Psychologists and educators have been studying various aspects of education for many years in search of factors that are related to success and failure in learning. These factors include methods and techniques, personality, maturity, heredity, physical surroundings, motivation, and emotional climate, to name a few of the many factors that have been explored.
One of the difficulties that teachers experience in their attempts to cope with teaching-learning problems is the fact that a main source of their understanding has been the prescientific information and misinformation that forms the layman's concept of education and the educational processes. We commented earlier in this chapter that such concepts might interfere with the development of an effective understanding of educational psychology. One of the reasons why teachers have tended to be prescientific in their teaching has been their orientation toward their work and their profession. Although teaching is one of the oldest of the professions, and its "professional consciousness" is increasing, many teachers still have a tendency not to think of teaching as an expert profession. They have tended instead to fall into the layman's way of thinking that "any educated person can teach."
The expansion of the behavioral sciences and the increasing momentum of the mental hygiene movement during the last generation have produced a wealth of ideas, concepts, and research that have helped to broaden the scope of educational psychology, until it has become coextensive with education itself.
Internet and Education
New technological possibilities outstrip the ability to research their implications for education. As the Internet reaches more and more schools and families, the possibilities for engaging with information and for interpersonal interaction increase. Beyond proving the feasibility of new learning technologies, researchers need to understand how new forms of technology can be productively embedded into larger systems of human activity (curricula, intellectual investigations, group activities, disciplinary inquiry). Design-based approaches provide for such contextualization and integration of technology in educational practice.
A number of innovations in the field of Internet-based education from a research group helped invent the general approach. Some readers may have come upon this volume hoping that it would contain simple prescriptions on how to use the Internet for learning as determined by simple either- or comparisons, the "hard research" that is so lauded by experimental traditionalists. However, as any teacher who has tried to implement a research-based innovation knows, there are no simple answers. Research is important, and the defining characteristic of research is an empirical stance, a willingness to "listen to the data" and to look for patterns that hold true across time and space.
The use of Internet materials is fundamental to WISE, and all projects make use of some content from the World Wide Web as well as additional Web pages authored for purposes of the project. In WISE activities, students learn to use the Internet productively for inquiring, critiquing Web sites, designing approaches, or comparing arguments. Each project includes a lessons plan, preassessments and postassessments, links to the National Science Education Standards, a description of the learning goals, and ideas that students will likely bring with them to the project. All student work is saved on central project servers that enable student accounts and teacher accounts to be coordinated. Technology features for teachers include classroom management tools, grading environment, and the capability to make comments that students receive the next time they log into WISE.
In a nutshell, we want to explore how internet and education communities could be bridged to support improved understanding of complex, multidisciplinary, contemporary controversies in science. To this end, SCOPE has been building educational initiatives involving diverse groups of stakeholders and science educators interested in specific controversies including the global decline in amphibian populations (with most of this work being focused on deformed frogs in North America), approaches to the treatment and control of malaria, and the risks and benefits of genetically modified food (GMF). Engagement with each of these topics has allowed us to implement and study a range of approaches with emerging network-based software environments and educational approaches that support collective knowledge networking and individual knowledge integration.
Experience conducting design studies and summarizing the results in design narratives led to improvements in the research methods. To contribute to the knowledge integration of those concerned with im proving science education, including policymakers, curriculum framework committees, and school reformers, the partnership developed compelling comparison studies to meet the needs of decision makers.
ARTSCRAFTS
The history of Indian handicrafts can be dated back to the Indus Valley where the first traces of Indian handicraft can be found. Indian arts and crafts have evolved through religious traditions, local needs and foreign trade and commerce. Today, India is a treasure trove of various arts and crafts. The artisans of the country, through their incredible talent create extraordinary objects which are of great value in India and abroad. The various forms of art and crafts in India include painting, sculpture, pottery, metal work, textile, ivory work, glass products, leather works, papier mache, stone work, toys, wood work, cane work and terracotta.
The pre-modern Indian art is greatly inspired by religious themes and nature. A glimpse of Indian culture and tradition can be seen on the Buddhist murals of Ajanta, paintings in Rajput palaces, Hindu and Jain temples and many other ancient places. The miniature and folk paintings illustrate scenes from two great epics – the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Indian artisans are very much ingenious in making earthen pots and jewelry. Pottery work exists in almost all parts of the country. Making gems and jewelry is another art that Indian artisans have mastered. Today, India has flourished as a major manufacturer of precious and semi-precious gems, stones and jewelry. Indian handicrafts present some of the world’s widest and finest range of products.
The arts scene in India is markedly dynamic. It is uniquely splendorous in architectural and sculptural traditions and also retains its Indian ness in paintings despite Western influences. In India, the geography and climate contribute a lot to the form and substance of arts.
The sacred book of the Aryans in Sanskrit is the fundamental link to the Indian thoughts and arts. After the Indus valley civilization there was no continuity in the arts section until the age of the Mauryans when the Buddhist art form was born. Historically the first movement in art in India started with the Mauryan dynasty during 322-183 B.C. Then followed the Sunga and the Kushan periods when artistic activities were widespread and the important art centers were the Gandhara region and the Mathura region and the lower Godavari Basin in Andhra Pradesh.
TEXTILE DESIGNS
The discovery of several spindles and a piece of cotton stuck to a silver vase revealed that the art of spinning and weaving of cotton was perhaps known to the Harappans. References to weaving are found in the Vedic literature on the method of spinning and the various materials used. In northern, central and eastern India, ancient texts speak of Benaras, Bengal, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh as famous centres of weaving between the seventh century and second century BC. References to silk artifacts can be found in ancient Buddhist literature. In addition, there are abundant visual references that unveil the evolution of textile designs during different periods of time.
The foundations of the Indian textile trade with other countries began as early as the second century BC. A hoard of block printed and resist-dyed fabrics, mainly of Gujarati origin, found in the tombs of Fostat, Egypt, is the proof of large-scale Indian export of cotton textiles to the Egypt in medieval times. In the 13th century, Indian silk was used as barter for spices from the western countries. Towards the end of the 17th century, the British East India Company had begun exports of Indian silks and various other cotton fabrics to other countries. These included the famous fine Muslin cloth of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Trade of painted and printed cottons or chintz was extensively practiced between India, China, Java and the Philippines, long before the arrival of the Europeans.
Textiles came to be associated with social and ritualistic events from very early times. Sacred images are clothed and the texts, whether on palm leaves or on paper, are tied in bright textile pieces. Fabrics that use mill-spun yarn but which are hand-woven are known as handloom. Cotton is the soul of the handloom industry of India today. Before the introduction of mechanized means of spinning in the early 19th century, Indian cottons and silks were hand spun and hand woven. Khadi became a highly popular fabric as a result of the swadeshi movement. Today cotton is an integral part of textiles in India. Nearly four million handlooms are engaged in weaving fabrics of nearly 23 different varieties of cotton. Each region of the subcontinent developed its own distinct textile identity, reflected in the weave and pattern of the fabric and in the way it was worn. Kanchipuram, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Varanasi, Jaipur, Chanderi, Paithan, Gadhwal and Kashmir were important centres of textiles from ancient times. The finest textures of northern parts of the country are the Maheshwari and Chanderi saris of Madhya Pradesh and jamdani of Tanda and Benaras in Uttar Pradesh. The Benares silk saris is a very ancient tradition. In the 19th century, Benares silk manufacturers used vegetable and animal forms which were derivations of the Mughal tradition. The design now widely used is a highly stylised floral motif known as the 'Ashrafi Buti', which is based on the old gold sovereigns. The tangail cottons of West Bengal, Sambalpuri and Vichitrapuri saris of Orissa, tussar silk of Bihar, kasavumundu and karalkuda of Kerala, Kancheepuram silks of Tamil Nadu, Pochampalli telia rummals of Andhra Pradesh and the Irkali saris of Bijapur in Karnataka are fascinating specimens of meticulous workmanship. The Paithani saris, produced in Paithan near Aurangabad, are made of silk in rich, vivid colours with gold embroidery. They find a mention even in the Greek records dating before Christ. Paithani is expressed in designs like mazchar (ripples of silver), bangadi mor (peacock inside a bangle) and dhup chaun (sunshine and shade), which are woven on the pallu. In the modern Paithani saris, silver threads coated with gold are used instead of pure gold threads. Aurangabad is also famous for the Himroo shawls which are made of fine threads of silver and gold. The final cloth appears as "Gold Cloth". Jamdani cottons, traditionally woven in Tanda, Uttar Pradesh, are lightweight patterned cloths that essentially rely on the tapestry technique. Fine white, off-white or cream coloured cloth is woven in Kota, Rajasthan and Palghat and Thiruvanthapuram in Kerala.
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT
Foreign direct investment or rather this equity investment carried out by multinational corporations can take a variety of forms. One is through the purchase of an ongoing company. For example, Santander Central Hispano (SCH), the Spanish lender, which is Spain's biggest bank, bought Abbey National of the United Kingdom, in order to ring up 150 million euros of cost savings in the first year after the merger, rising to 300 million euros in the second and 450 million euros in the third, BBC (2004). Rather than building this business from scratch, Banco Santander bought its way into the financial sector of the United Kingdom through FDI. Another form of FDI is to set up a new overseas operation as either a joint venture or a totally owned enterprise. For example, Matsushita, the Japanese company is now positioning itself to become a major competitor in the European digital industry and has recently entered into a joint venture with British Telecommunications plc for the purpose of developing multimedia wireless services and products, Pringle (2000). In general, the objective of FDI is to provide the investing company with the opportunity to actively manage and control a foreign firm's activities. There are a number of advantages that multi-national corporations (MNC) face or rather factors that encourage MNC to take ownership position or gain control of foreign assets.
Some of the largest and best-known multinationals earn millions of dollars each year through overseas sales. In the EU, for example, companies in smaller economies need to look outside of their home borders. This helps to explain why 60 per cent of Royal Dutch/Shell's assets and 75 per cent (see appendix Table 1) of BP's assets are in foreign markets, including the markets of other EU members. In addition, although Switzerland is not in the EU, nearly 90 per cent of Nestl̩'s assets are outside Switzerland. The same is true of revenues. Over 50 per cent of Royal Dutch/Shell's sales originate outside its home markets (the Netherlands and the UK) and nearly 70 per cent of BP's sales are from outside the UK. In addition, global markets often offer more lucrative opportunities than do domestic markets. This helps to explain why Coca РCola and IBM now earn more sales revenue and profits overseas than they do in the US, and why PepsiCo has become Mexico's largest consumer products company.
Some international markets are growing much faster than others, and FDI provides MNC's with the chance to take advantage of these opportunities. A good example is China. Over the past few years the Chinese economy has grown at an annual rate of around 7 – 8 per cent. This is quite good given that its GDP is in the range of $1 trillion. The data also shows that if the country continues to move toward a market-driven economy, MNC's are likely to find a huge demand for goods and services that cannot be satisfied by local firms alone. Simply put, China is a market where most multinationals want to have a presence despite the fact that there are many problems in doing business there and virtually no MNC has yet been able to extract an adequate return on its investment.
A MNC can sometimes achieve substantial lower costs by going abroad than by producing at home, for example, Japan does not have enough land for most manufacturing companies to embark on setting up corporations, hence they have had to invest in countries like, China and Scotland . If labour expenses are high and represent a significant portion of overall costs, a MNC may be well advised to look to other geographic areas where the goods can be produced at a much lower labour price. Surprisingly perhaps, in recent years some Canadian manufacturers have been moving operations across the border to take advantage of lower US labour unit costs. A second important cost factor is materials. If materials are in short supply or must be conveyed a long distance, it may be less expensive to move production close to the source of supply than to import the materials. A third critical cost factor is energy. If the domestic cost of energy for making the product is high, the company may be forced to set up operations overseas near sources of cheaper energy. A fourth important factor is transportation costs. In the recent past Chinese textile firms had gained a major share of the US market. Production costs were so low that, even after adding in transportation expenses, they were able to beat out most competitors. In recent years many firms have used all four of these reasons to justify moving assembly operations to other countries.
MANAGEMENT INTEGRATED ACCOUNTING
Accounting data are the most important source in making important executive decisions, advanced management accounting techniques depend on building business models that have feedback loops to evaluate the impact of management decisions on internal and external stakeholders, this loop requires cooperation between customers, shareholders and employees.Companies in the US and the UK have been slow in adopting the new business models which depends on empowering employees by giving them more responsibility and reward, the reason for the delay is the manipulation in the financial data that undermined the mechanism for rewarding employees, Ezzamel, M, Lilley, S, Wilmott, H and Green, C (1995)
Employees are considered the most important asset in the company. Competitors can copy the company's technologies, products and management style. But No one, however, can match the highly loyal, dependable and motivated employees who care. People are the firm's stock of knowledge and they are central to any company's competitive strategy and competitive advantage, employees if empowered is more important that machines, investors and suppliers.Corporations do not talk and do not do jobs, Well educated, empowered, and highly motivated people are critical to the development and execution of the corporate strategies, especially in today's faster-paced and competitive world, where senior management alone can no longer assure your firm's competitiveness.
People are the firm's most underutilized resource; corporations use the knowledge and the experience of their employees. In the new knowledge economy, independent entrepreneurship and initiative is needed in order to survive the current competitive markets. In today's corporate competitive environment a manager must work hard towards engaging the organization's employees towards achieving the objectives of the organization. Hierarchical organizational structures and highly skilled workforce are shaping new knowledge-based corporations.
Managers are expected to perform more leadership and coaching tasks and work hard in order to provide employees with the necessary resources and working environment that they need to accomplish the goals they've assigned to. In brief, managers work for their staff, and not the opposite.Empowerment is the oil that runs the process of learning. Talented and empowered intellectual capital is becoming the prime ingredient of organizational success. A critical feature of successful teams, especially in knowledge-based corporations, is that they are invested with a significant degree of empowerment, or decision-making authority.
Equally important, employee empowerment allow the company to gain the co-operation and the compliance of its employees, Hales,C(2000) empowerment changes the managers' priorities and leaves them with more time to engage in more strategic decisions, visioning, and innovation. This intelligent and productive division of duties between visionary leaders, focusing on emerging opportunities, and empowered employees, running the business unit day to day (with oversight on the leader's part) provides for a well-managed enterprise with strong growth potential.The empowerment theory is not new, it is very old, and many economists have talked about empowering employees as a way of improving the level of output and the profitability of the company.Empowering employees makes them feel that they are important to the company, it helps develop a positive attitude to employees and reduce staff turnover and increase productivity.
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING TECHNIQUES
Changing external business environment has resulted in further developments in the tools and techniques used for management accounting. Traditional management accounting techniques had certain limitations associated with them, for instance, absorption costing methods have been found to be inappropriate in the modern environment. Similarly, standard costing' suitability with respect to its general philosophy and detailed operations has come under severe criticism. It is believed that traditional management accounting performance measures can produce the wrong type of response. As a response to the limitations of traditional accounting techniques, activity based approaches has gained significant repute.
In the case of activity based approaches, the focus is on the activities that the business carries out as opposed to how the activities have traditionally been organised into separate functions. Activity based costing was thus developed because it was realised that older methods like absorption costing, which used labour hours as the basis for absorbing overheads, did not provide useful information about the cost drivers, in other words it did not answer for the question what was causing the overheads to be incurred in the first place.
Generally, Activity Based Costing (ABC) is defined as an accounting technique that allows an organization to determine the actual cost associated with each product and service produced by the organization without regard to the organizational structure. Amongst various benefits associated with the ABC approach one of the major ones is that it helps to define the activities of the organisation in terms of value adding activities. In other words, as a result of ABC it is easy to identify which activities add value to the organisation. Identification of non-value adding activities helps in identifying where time, effort and money are being wasted and unnecessary costs being incurred.
Advantages associated with activity-based approach are many. More generally it is said that activity based costing recognises the inherent complexities faced by many businesses in the present day, which results in the businesses having multiple cost drivers, many of them are transaction based rather than volume based.. These complexities arise due to businesses now having a broader product range and the business environment in general is more volatile and unpredictable. It is further argued that activity based analysis provides a more meaningful analysis of costs which provide a better basis for pricing decisions, product mix decisions, design decisions and production decisions. Besides activity based analysis is concerned with all overhead costs, including the costs of the non-factory floor functions (product design, quality control, production planning, sales order planning and customer service) and not just factory-floor overheads; thus it takes cost accounting beyond the traditional factory floor boundaries. In addition activity based costing helps in identifying the causes of increases in costs and thus it further helps in reducing costs. ABC can be used in conducting customer profitability analysis.
Despite the advantages associated with activity based costing a number of criticisms have been identified. Theorists have argued that the costs of obtaining and interpreting the new information may be time consuming activity, thus it has been suggested that activity based analysis must only be introduced when there are provisions in the organisation to manage information to use in planning and/or control decisions. Secondly, it has been criticised on the grounds that many overheads do not relate either to volume or to complexity and diversity. Severe criticisms were also raised with the underlying principle of ABC, which is that activity causes cost. Proponents of this viewpoint argue that decisions cause cost or the passage of time causes costs or that there may not be any one clear cause of cost.Throughput accounting is an alternative to cost accounting based on Standard or Activity Based Costing (ABC) proposed by Eliyahu M. Goldratt. Throughput accounting claims to improve management decisions by using measurements that more closely reflect the effect of decisions on three critical monetary variables. It has originated from the Theory of constraints.
MERCURIAL MODERNISM
Modernism as a genre of architecture has undergone a variety of changes in its perceptions and definitions, largely as a result of its practical and necessary longevity. It is perceived in most cases, against other styles and trends, and has gone, over the years, from being the bad boy on the block in the early decades of last century, to latterly representing the essence of conservatism. It is important that one realises this relativistic viewpoint when looking at forms of modernist architecture. However, its fundamentals have been the building blocks for the new contemporary styles against which it is judged, in as much as the elements that it gleaned from its architectural past, and in this manner, it has achieved a malleability that has ensured its continued existence.
The manner in which Modern architecture as the physical manifestation of architectural Modernism, is defined, is temporal in nature and is part of the conundrum. This is evidenced in the early work by Wagner in 1902, where ‘Modern’ Architecture is considered to emanate out of a 19th Century decorative tradition. (Wagner, 1988). This subscribes to the transitory notion of which each aspect considering itself modern, forms part. (Heynen; 1999: 12) Thus, modernism as an all embracing ‘ism’ arises; the nomenclature attempting to position it as an inclusive movement at a specific place in time, with defined parameters and goals.
The definition of the term forms the substrate to the discussion, as the parts that make up the whole are important in the understanding of the conflicts. This discourse regarding the definitions of modernism is embraced by Heynen, who notes that it is certainly not a simplistic set of ideas, and the that definition of the word itself modernised over many centuries. (Heynen; 1999: 10) She describes individually the three terms, Modernisation, Modernity, and Modernism. In this case, the first defines a socio-cultural and technological development, the second the ‘typical features of modern times and to the way that these features are experienced by the individual’ (Ibid: 10) and modernism as ‘a generic term for those theoretical and artistic ideas about modernity that enable men and women to assume control over the changes that are taking place in a world by which they too are changed.’(Ibid: 10). Thus, her description of the term is less involved with the architectural and artistic manifestations of the ideal, than the ideal itself. Importantly, Heynen sees modernity as the necessary linkage between modernisation and modernism. This has two elements; one which is based on socio-economic phenomena and one that more subjectively deals with implementations such as artistic, experiential and theoretical considerations. In juxtaposition to the etymology surrounding modernism is the notion of tradition as a necessary part of the creation of society and its bounds. However, this is an important part of the debate for, as Heynen says, ‘The desire for innovation and the rebellion against the pressure of tradition are part of the generally accepted ingredients of the modern.’ Tradition then leads to the conceptual framework of the idea of ‘dwelling’ which has embedded in it a number of qualities such as connectivity with the landscape, the elements, the necessaries of living and the prescribed cultural determinants. Heynen sees that ‘dwelling’ in this regard is often conceptually absent in modernity; ‘Modernity frees people from the limitations imposed upon them by their family or clan or by their village community, offering them unheard of options and often material improvements as well; there is, however, a price to pay. The renunciation of the traditional framework of reference for their lives means a loss of certainties and of meaning. For many people it is far from easy to learn to live with this.’ . However, this is a critical comment in the context of the discussion of Modernist Architecture, as, generally speaking, the modern movement was seen to focus largely on the dwelling, whether purpose built for a client, or whether it solved problems of mass housing in an efficient and pleasant manner.
ART DECO STYLE
The Art Deco style was the genre during the 1920s and 1930s affecting the decorative arts, fine arts and fashion . Throughout this period it was moment for women's clothing fashions. The portraits of Polish-born Tamara de Lempicka elaborated on the trend as a painter of people mainly in the smart social circles in which she moved. She was penniless when she fled to Paris with her husband and daughter. It was then she resolved her talents of artistry would establish a successful career in Paris.To represent her painting style she elaborated on distinctive streamlined elegance with a sense of chic decadence, often compared to the cubism of Leger . She was better than anyone else at representing the Art Deco style in painting. Her works exhibited the true meaning of the Art Deco style and affiliated the passion for design that women had in their life's turning point . It can be said that she is probably the most famous painter of the art deco period.
The painting style created by de Lempicka was as glamorous as her subject matter. Her instructor Andre Lhote did not realize the subtle syntheses of inspiration she portrayed. The use of a plastic metaphor which Tamara used time and again in her artistic output can be characterized by the haughty expression typical of a certain caste, or in her nudes which are allegories of lasciviousness. She used a trademark combination of soft, rounded forms set against architectural lines and shapes that reflected a new sophisticated urbanity to those she painted in highly mannered portraits. Her other main subjects included erotic nudes and still life of calla lilies. Her bold technique and palette rapidly won her acclaim as the quintessential Art Deco artist .
Art Deco design was above all modern that exemplified the boundless potential of a newly industrialized world. The characterizations of Art Deco include the use of materials such as sharkskin, zebra skin, zigzag and stepped forms, bold and sweeping curves, chevron patterns, and sunburst motif. The sunburst motif was used in such varied contexts as a lady's shoe. It was a mainstream in consumerism that was stressed in the great fashion magazines as Vogue and Harper's Bazaar to advertise the emergence of the New Woman in American society.It was argued that Art Deco functioned as a trademark for popular notions of femininity during a time when women were said to be the consumers of the average household. A genre of the time it appealed to women and was used as a selling point for cosmetics, clothing, home furnishings, jewelry, and art objects. The image that femininity would dominate the American imagination for the future inspired consumerism .
The corset was definitively eliminated making the flat and square dresses of the 1920s an ideal canvas to display motifs of the Art Deco period. Skirts were shortened and the female figure became formless and androgynous - the waistline dropped to the hips or simply ceased to exist. In the 1930s the waistline moved to its natural position. Nylon, satin, silk and crepe the most prevalent of materials used to make fine figure defining dresses. Fabric was cut diagonally to take advantage of its elasticity to show formation of what it covered. Skirts were made longer while the legs were allowed to be seen via long slits in the dresses and the shoulders were broadened by padded shoulder inserts.
TOURISM MANAGEMENT
Tourism studies including tourism management are novel concepts and have only evolved in the past 30 years. Tourism management is a subject that consists of many facets. "The subject area of international tourism management is so wide and varied, covering aspects as diverse as economics, accounting, marketing, politics, physical planning, sociology and environmental studies that it makes the production of a comprehensive textbook a most difficult task" writes Edmund Heery from Kingston Business School about the book "The Management of International Tourism" from Witt et al. But not only are the areas copious, also will they vary depending on what kind of tourism management is examined; is it the activities of a tourist manager in a large hotel on the Balearic Islands or is it a tourist development planner in the Gambia. Other writers believe that the main principles of tourism management focuses on how to influence visitors' choices of location, access, timing and product provision and to develop local understanding and knowledge of appropriate balance between demand and supply. This would imply that tourism management is about marketing, infrastructure, access, seasonality and educational efforts. And this then at least partly seems inline with Heerys' view.
Tourism is an ancient phenomenon and existed already in the times of Mesopotamia. However, it has only started to expand significantly post-Cook area of 1880 and it was not until post-war 1950's that modern mass tourism appeared6. This growth of mass tourism has showed some horrific consequences and made it quite clear that the sustainable planning and development of a tourist area are some of the crucial tourist management principals.
To outline each and every facet of tourism planning and development would leave one writing an entire book. However, a common contemporary theme in tourism and development, which became fashionable within the past 20 years, is the issue of sustainable tourism1. Considering the Brundtland Commission (1987) development is sustainable when "it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". At the Globe ' Conference in Vancouver a different definition was offered; "Sustainable tourism development is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that we can fulfil economic, social and aesthetic needs while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems".
It often seems that one of the main reasons for tourism development in a country is the economical gain that is expected to come with it. But whether the economical gains will really exceed the costs (not only economically) of tourism, will greatly depend on the methods and principals used by the tourism management. Naturally there are the staffing costs, utilities and overheads etc. And in the day to day management, methods should be used in order to lessen these costs to a minimal, i.e. through better staffing rotas or by using electricity and water saving measures. However, these measures are mainly concerned with single tourism entities, such as a hotel. But in this report, we are more interested in the grand economic management principals.
The methods used to achieve sustainable tourism are numerous. But the main principal stays the same; they are all aimed at the protection of the host destination, rather then focusing on the tourists demand. Clearly do the tourist demands need to be considered, but it should not be the main focus for tourist managers when designing the tourist product. And if all tourist managers adhere to those main principals and transform them in their methods, then hopefully there is a sustainable future for tourism.
GLOBAL MARKETING SRATEGY
While joint venture (JV) is a popular market entry method, many JVs fail within the first few years. This essay will discuss the many reasons JVs fail and highlight ways these reasons can be overcome.While are a variety of technical, business, and cultural reasons that JVs fail, most JV failures can be attributed to lack of shared strategy, poor communication, lack of trust and mutual understanding, or tension around goals. In the international setting, cultural differences add an additional layer of complexity and often contribute to failure as well.
Researchers Park and Ungeson argue that most strategic alliances including joint ventures that fail do so as a result of problems that can be generally described as either interfirm rivalry or managerial complexity. They propose that generally alliances fail as a result of the opportunistic hazards as each partner tries to maximize its own individual interests instead of collaborative interests. The sheer technical difficulty of coordinating the goals and operations of two separate companies around similar goals and interests, and aligning operations at the alliance level with parent firms' long-term goals is daunting, and it is no surprise that many firms are unable to successfully navigate a path to success.
Where joint ventures represent the combined effort of two separate parent companies with divergent goals and interests, coming together around a common purpose and goals and establishing a separate organization to pursue those, it is critically important that the resulting goals be defined clearly and truly represent shared interests. Operationally as well, JVs often run into problems where the expectations of one company diverge from another's despite the use of common terminology and the perception of shared goals and interests.While companies may agree to establish a JV around common goals and interests, the competitive interests of the parent firms are not eliminated, and often contribute to tension within the JV itself. Excessive rivalry is a common factor in the undoing of JVs; while rivalry is a fact of life and competition between and among firms is not expected to dissipate with the establishment of a JV, problems arise when such rivalry eclipses cooperative tendencies.
For example, US companies are often concerned about losing proprietary information, and may hesitate to share technological information amid concerns of not being compensated properly or losing a competitive advantage, even within a partnership. Activities and operations within the JV setting do not occur in a vacuum, and parent company concerns about the proprietary information and trade secrets often create tension one side of the JV partnership, which naturally creates problems of trust and communication in the JV as a whole.The JV path is precarious, a route rich with opportunity and yet fraught with the potential for failure, where cultural understanding is absolutely critical. Engaging in a multi-national JV without first undertaking to understand the cultural differences and their implications at both a strategic and operational level is a recipe for disaster.The differences in the JV experience of two client firms described by R. Pooley in a recent Management Services article and how one succeeded where the other failed in understanding and managing the cultural implications of the international JV endeavor, speak to the essence of the issue. One JV partnership between a Japanese and German company in which one was to share marketing and the other technical expertise, was launched with enthusiasm and fanfare only to break down within a few days of face-to-face interaction at the operational level, apparently exclusively as a result of cultural misunderstandings and poor communication, the two sides were hardly speaking to each other and both expressed opinions about the other that could only be described as racist.
DYNAMIC WEB DESIGNING
The main software application that I used during this brief was Macromedia Dreamweaver MX, with the incorporation of Javascript for the dynamic elements of the website. Like all software packages, Dreamweaver MX has advantages and disadvantages. Dependant on the experience and skills of the user, this package can be a help or a hindrance.I would say that this package may appear to be a little daunting to users new to web development, so much so that a lesser package, like FrontPage for example, may be more beneficial and help build user confidence before they move on to Dreamweaver. I do not think that Dreamweaver is ideal for beginners as users are presented with an interface that is packed with Dreamweaver's special features. This software package has a lot going on with regards to potential tools used for web development and incorporates advanced development tools that some newer users may find difficult to take on board and understand.
That said, Dreamweaver does incorporate a great deal of help for users. There is an animated tour that comes with the package. This tour looks at the basics of web design, and provides a good point of reference for developers. Also included in the software package are numerous tutorials, covering various aspects of Dreamweaver. These tutorials are well worth spending a bit of time going through, as they not only build user confidence with the package, but also allow the user to appreciate the multitude of features incorporated into the package. Also, due to the popularity of the software, users can quite easily access online tutorials to aid in the speeding up of knowledge intake for this package. These online tutorials are pitched at all levels of expertise, from the novices to the experts.
Dreamweaver will allow users to design and create web pages without the need for any prior knowledge of HTML (Hyper Text Mark-up Language) as it offers the choice of views for the design environment. In the design mode, users can simply chose a template from the vast library available and simply amend these by including text, pictures, hyperlinks etc. Once these features have been implemented into the web page, the automatically produced HTML code can be viewed by changing the view available.If a developer is looking at creating a more dynamic site then Dreamweaver can be a bit of a headache. The automatically generated HTML code can often be incorrect. The software will attempt to second-guess what the user is trying to achieve. Tags and additional code are sometimes included where they shouldn't be and the production of tables, cascading style sheets and other various attributes of web design can go drastically wrong when more complex pages are being developed.
For more complex web pages it is worth using Dreamweaver as a base for the development and concentrate more on the code view available where the HTML code can be edited manually. More experienced web developers will just use a text editor to produce their pages as they become increasingly frustrated with the WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) editors.The more advanced web page development requires users to have some working knowledge of programming skills. The easiest programming language to incorporate into a web page is Javascript, but even this requires the developer to have some insight into writing easy scripts, and normal data manipulation associated with programming. There are websites available that provide online tutorials to simple Javascript functions, but even these can prove to be difficult to follow for individuals that have limited or no previous experience with programming.
On the positive side, because Javascript is a client-side scripting language, the speed of running the code, and consequently the loading and refreshing of pages, is greatly increased. All the functions incorporated into a web page are executed on the client machine and there is no need for the web page to access the web server with the query, return the results, and then present the results to the user in order to run the script.There is a security issue associated with Javascript. Due to the fact that the script will run on the client's machine, some hackers will use this fact to exploit the client machine. Also, all the hard work put into the web pages scripting elements can be viewed by anyone accessing that particular page if the developer has just incorporated the scripts directly.Finally, the incorporation of Javascript on any web page must be carefully tested. Different Web browsers will manage the scripts differently and sometimes the results are not what the developer had wanted. It is definitely recommended that any web page that includes any form of scripting should be tested against all the major browsers available. This is also true for non-scripted web pages.
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY.
In the last few decades, the quest for continuous improvement and innovation has led to the discovery of new approaches to best practice by different players in the construction industry in the United Kingdom. These efforts have been initiated with the view to increase understanding of the needs of key business areas as well as increase client, users and stakeholders' value. In this regard experts in the field of construction have proposed "rethinking of construction" (Egan 1998) by strategically rethinking operational stages in order to decrease cost and improve performance. One of these strategic operational stages, called the briefing process has perked the interests of the researcher in the course of producing a report on value management. During a research of a case study on ABC, the researcher has observed that without a clearly defined and articulated brief, the concept of "client value" can alter with each individual's perception. Such alterations can have a deep impact on the quality and the performance of construction projects.
A brief review of text books and reports reveal that construction excellence has not only become an option but a necessity, if the UK construction industry is to survive economics dynamics and changing social needs. Considering the industry is one of the pillars of the domestic economy making approximately 10 percent of GDP and employing considerable number of workers, it is important to note that construction excellence is critical for the UK economy and its future. More importantly, the construction industry needs to improve itself in order to increase profitability, quality of deliverables and client needs before it can contribute to the economy. The purpose of this study is to show that, players must understand at the center of construction processes and activities is the client. Delivering value can only be initiated if players understand client needs. This is achievable through articulated briefing process. The brief is the critical communication point where clients and project management meet to transform ideas into reality. Value deliverables is accomplishable if this point of communication is contiguous, based on the same platform and management places the client at the center of the construction process.
Aim and ObjectivesThe aim of this research is to identify how value management concept can be integrated in the briefing process to articulate client requirements. More importantly the objective is to demonstrate that improved briefing can lead to value management throughout the project lifecycle and improve individual performance. Integrating value in briefing can result in high productivity, positive working environment and also ensure client satisfaction through timeliness, quality and value. Briefing therefore is the essence of partnering which experts in the field of construction have been promoting.
Brief Literature ReviewThe deteriorating condition of the construction industry during the 1960s through 1980s has led to major disputes and animosity between clients and constructors. With the rise of dispute resolution, legislators, management and players have forced them to reconsider their position and future. Constructing the Team by Sir Michael Latham in 1994 has proposed the industry to concentrate on standardization and improvement efforts through better guidance on best practice and simplification of dispute resolution. Latham is of the opinion that efficiency savings could lead to better achievements. And to achieve such efficiency communication, training and dispute resolution should be improved. At the core of the Latham report, one observes that better communication is inherent not only between clients and project managers but also with suppliers, contractors, workers, designers, engineers and architects - all contribute to increased efficiency.Similarly, in Rethinking Construction by Sir John Egan (1998) Egan also identifies the need to integrate five driving factors to secure improvement. These would significantly improve target achievements, reduce costs and save delivery time frame. According to Egan, inefficient practices as well as non-collaborative operational practices lead to disparity and dispute for all parties. It is therefore recommended that all parties understand project requirements, ensure client participation and operational transparency. The challenge is to achieve high performance amidst constraints and improve construction performance by concentrating on meeting end user needs. It is only through this that the project management can ensure value delivered to the client. To achieve the above partnering is imperative, and communication is vital.
CRIME REDUCTION RESEARCH
From the latter part of the 1950's to the early 70's, the study of deviance and crime by criminologists entered an intensive period of development. The dominant criminological paradigm to emerge in this post-World War II period became known as 'social democratic positivism'. The central tenet of this approach was a belief that the increases in crime and anti-social behaviour which had been witnessed in this period were due to the demise of social conditions; social democratic positivism dictated that the only way to reduce these high levels of anti-social behaviour and crime therefore was to improve the existing anti-social conditions of post-war Europe.
Practical measures were introduced in line with this 'wisdom': Governments went about demolishing slums and pumping large amounts of money into increased welfare spending, the promotion of education, and large scale campaigns to encourage greater levels of full employment. In practical terms, these measures were certainly very successful; there was a marked increase in the level of social affluence throughout the industrial world: In Britain, for example, in the years from 1951 to 1971, real disposable income per person in the UK increased by a factor of 64 per cent . According to the writings and practices of social democratic positivism, this resulting increase in social affluence throughout the industrial nations of the world should have had a noticeable and significant effect on reducing the levels of crime throughout these nations, but rather than decreasing crime, quite the opposite happened: "Crime soared. It did not just increase a little; it rose at a faster rate and to higher levels than at any time since the 1930's and, in some categories, to higher levels than any experienced in this century"
The promise of social democratic positivism was, by the end of the 1970's, deemed false and impractical because the initiatives which were based on it had completely failed in their task of reducing crime and delinquency. "Whilst lip-service was still being paid to these types of programmes, there was already a preparedness to look elsewhere for alternative solutions to the delinquency problem .Alternatives which could be seen to be emerging included a revival of the neo classical criminology as could be seen by the introduction of the 'short, sharp shock' treatment initiatives of this period and a reformulation of positivism from a social to an individual and biological focus .
However, these emerging approaches were not ideal alternatives. Both neo-classicism and individual/biological positivism as explanations and approaches to the reduction of crime had evident limitations, both political and explanatory. Neo classicism lost much of its credibility in the 1970's as a result of convincing research which found that measures such as increasing the number of police, using 'saturation' policing initiatives and reducing the time taken to respond to emergency calls [which were all true hall marks of the neo classical approach] would not, in practice, serve as an effective means by which crime and deviance could be controlled and reduced. As Jerome Skolnick and David Bayley comment, these findings were devastating. Just as social democratic positivism had been discredited by the soaring crime rates of the 1960's, by the end of the 1970's, so too had the rehabilitative prison regimes and the short sharp shock initiatives advocated by neo-classical policy-makers.
As for individual and biological positivism, whilst some of the emerging criminology in this area did provide some good insight into some of the possible causes of crime and deviance, it was clear the not all crime was caused by biological factors and as such, it was soon recognised that biological positivism could only explain a small proportion of the problem of crime. On top of this, the individual therapy programmes needed to 'cure' such offenders proved very expensive and as such, impractical on any widespread scale.This crisis in etiology and penology serves as an exquisite example of how, despite large amounts of thinking, writing and debate about criminology and the causes of crime, excessive reliance on approaches which focussed too heavily on singular aspects of the processes involved in the causes of crime and deviance lead to widespread failures in their reduction. These theories and resulting criminal justice practices simply failed to recognise the complexity of the causes of crime. The reaction however to these crises spurned a new, more comprehensive approach. In the latter part of this essay I will discuss one such criminological approach, namely that of left-realism. I will argue that whilst the content of the left-realist doctrine may or may not be the correct analysis of the process of crime, more importantly, this approach might have paved the way for a brighter future in terms of effective crime control, in which we might actually see a resulting reduction in crime.
PACKAGING DESIGN
The concept of product packaging along with design represents an understanding that to market one’s item to consumers entails an understanding that they have choices and the core idea in implementing the preceding represents swaying that choice to one’s particular brand. Product packaging, in terms of human history and civilization, is a relatively new concept in that the early tribal and village cultures caught and consumed food where it was located, moving frequently to avail themselves of game and growing produce (Berger, 2002). The self contained and self sufficiency nature of this type of existence created little need to store, transport or package items as they were consumed almost instantly. Containers of that period consisted of leaves, shells and gourds which later gave way to materials that were of natural origin, such as animal organs, containers made of woven grasses and logs that were hollowed (Berger, 2002). As humankind progressed, gathered into larger villages and what could be termed towns the increased nature of commerce included foodstuffs as an item of trade. Trading marts sold not only woven materials and fashioned implements, but were a location where hunters and farmers brought items to market to be sold.
The earliest example of pottery and earthen containers has been traced back to the Paleolithic period around the 11th millennium where samples were found in the Japanese islands The initial uses with respect to food and other products was the mass or volume storage of grains, jewels, and weapons such as arrows and other items, with this evolving into farmers and merchants devising means to measure amounts and weigh items to sell to buyers and purchasers on an equal basis. The development of a uniform size for varied containers which held differing amounts provided a quick and consistent measurement via which merchants could relatively quickly dispense varied amounts in uniform measurements and as commerce grew, crude packaging was utilized.
There are varied types of packaging which have been employed through the ages as the innovations and discoveries in other fields impacted upon this area. As a result packaging categories can be divided into the following segments:
Flexible: This is comprised of material that easily bends and conforms to the contents, and in the case of modern packaging consists of containers that hold sugar, potato chips and the varied packages that we utilize to put items into for carting home from the market. The utilization of cloth, leaves and woven grasses falls into this category and represents some of the earliest forms of packaging utilization. Flexible packaging is termed “source-reduced”, which means that it adds and or has the least amount of material when compared with other packaging types that could be utilized, thus adding minimal weight . The advantage is also that flexible packaging is easily discarded after use.
Flexible packaging use on a commercially wide scale basis has been traced back to the Chinese in the first or second century BC, who utilized sheets of mulberry bark that was treated as a wrapping for foods . The Chinese refined and further developed packaging techniques in the ensuing centuries as a result of innovations in the art of making paper and as the knowledge of papermaking spread across continents as a result of exploration and trade, it made its way through Asia and eventually Europe. Papermaking was first introduced in England in 1310 and arrived in the United States in 1690, when it was introduced to Germantown, Pennsylvania (infoplease.com. 2005). Paper then consisted of a thin sheet of cellulose and its early development comprised cellulose fibers that were derived from flax, which is the same plant that is utilized to make fibers for linen. The early demand for paper actually created a situation whereby old linen rags were utilized as a fiber source in its making. It was not until 1867 that making paper from wood pulp, the process we commonly are familiar with, came into use (Berger, 2002). The plentiful and inexpensive nature of this supply source resulted in its becoming the primary source of papermaking and permitted the utilization of paper based products to be used in various manners. As wood pulp replaced cloth, the use of paper became widespread as the cost to manufacture it rapidly decreased.
The first important development in packaging came with the creation of paper bags in 1844 when this was introduced in Bristol, England. Francis Wolle in the United States invented a machine in 1852 that made paper bags and this made the use of this type of packaging to become one of the primary sources of that time (TheGreatIdeaFinder.com). Developments along these lines continued in the 1870´s as glue was utilized to make paper sacks, along with the introduction of the gusset design which is the construction method we are familiar with today. Further advancements included the invention of machinery that produced what is termed as in-line printed paper bags which aided in marketing and merchandising differentiation. The development of the glued paper sack enabled the replacement of the more expensive cotton flour sack, and eventually the creation of multi-walled paper sacks permitted this material to replace cloth when the method to sew multi-walled paper sack ends was invented in 1925.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
There is a substantial amount of literature focusing on individual learning within the discipline of social psychology. However there is a need to examine the notion of organisational learning which is associated with the growing recognition of the relationship between organisational strategy and learning . The discipline of social psychology is significant especially in terms of considering the dynamics of organisational learning. It is vital then to begin with a brief review of three key concepts within psychological sciences about the processes of learning which can be defined as Behaviourist theory, Cognitive theory and Humanist theory .
Psychological research has put forward a number of theories seeking to explain individual learning and the processes involved in this function. In general due to different perceptual processes people pick up different pieces of information from world with this resulting in learning styles and processes varying from one to another. Psychologists then can be seen to draw upon concepts and derive principles which support each other and contradict each other in order to reveal people’s learning process dependent of the contextual basis to which such theorising takes place in. In order to understand organisational learning behaviour it is useful to be aware of the similarities and differences of these individualised learning theories as organizations are composed of individuals who are organised in some way to achieve organizational objectives. Thus a reductionist outlook explaining organisational learning will serve to explain these processes at the macro level of the organisation.
Therefore a review of the literature suggests a multiplicity of theories surrounding the learning process with diametric views and little consensus existing on these processes. According to Myers (1995) individual learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behaviour resulting due to experience. In consideration of this definition behaviourist learning theory takes up the argument that human behaviour is learned. In other words behaviourists contend that human behaviour as well as individual learning is the product of experiences gleaned within the milieu of physical and social environments (Myers, 1995; Butler & McManus, 2000). The most familiar of all behaviourist theories related to learning is conditioning which was first researched by the Russian psychologist Pavlov. Pavlov conditioned dogs by associating the sound of a bell with food being given to them to the degree that the sound of the bell alone would cause the dogs to salivate. Pavlov proposed that unconditioned stimuli are linked with automatic responses which are not learned but are inherent within the biological processes of the organism. In contrast only stimuli and responses which are learned are conditioned (Myers, 1995; Stewart, 1999).
There are several limits of this theory which have been raised extensively since behavioural theories became popular both within psychology and outside of the discipline generally. Yet it can be argued that the main contribution of the classic conditioning model confirms the relationship between conditioned motivations and conditioned responses. The second model first expounded by the American behaviourist Skinner focused on associations between operant behaviour and controllable behaviour (Myers, 1995). This theory suggest that measures can exist intrinsically and extrinsically controlling what people learn and suggests that if the outcome is pleasant so the likelihood of such behaviour generating this outcome being repeated is high. On a practical level then this can explain people in organisations who do highly repetitive work easily losing interest in performing these tasks where no positive outcome is associated with their tasks.
COASTAL DEFENCE
Coastlines display enormous diversity. This is due to the variety and complexity of the factors influencing coastal morphology. In very general Davisian terms, any shoreline is a product of “structure, stage and process”. In other words, in analysing any shoreline, one must take into account structural factors such as the arrangement of different rock types and their resistance to wave attack and solution, as well as other geological considerations such as the angle of dip and pattern of bedding and jointing of sedimentary strata, The form of any shoreline is also a product of its age and the stage reached in its evolution; that is to say, one must take into account former geological processes and earlier changes of climate and sea-level which may have produced particular features of the present coastline.
Finally, the contemporary processes of coastal erosion and deposition operating on the shoreline are obviously important in determining its form, as are various other physical, chemical and biological processes operating above the tidal zone, together with human activity which is a rather specialized but important cause of coastal change. The multiplicity of factors involved and their local variations result in a wide variety of coastal landforms. Thus, “even within the small compass of Britain, one can contrast sinuous inlets of the South-West, the great sea lochs of Scotland, the low glacial coastline of East Anglia, the marshes of the Thames Estuary and the imposing chalk and limestone cliffs of the south coast” .
It has frequently been argued that systems of classifications are simply aids to description and understanding. By reducing large bodies of information down to a relatively small number of categories, order is imposed on apparent chaos, complexity is reduced to relative simplicity, and description and analysis are thereby facilitated. For these reasons, geomorphologists have long been interested in reducing the variety and complexity of coastal landforms to a relatively small number of distinctive types. C.A.M. King (1980) has suggested that systems of coastal classification are of two types, descriptive and genetic, and argues that the genetic type is preferred, as it is important to know something of the origin of present coasts. She has also suggested that systems of coastal classification ought to take three factors into account; first, the form of the land surface against which the sea is resting; secondly, the direction of the long-term movement of sea-level relative to the land; thirdly, the modifying effects of contemporary marine processes.Probably the earliest system of coastal classification was that proposed by E. Suess in his book “The Face of the Earth” (1888). This was based on the form of the land surface against which the sea is resting, and simply divided the world’s shorelines into Atlantic and Pacific types. In the former, structural trends are supposed to run at right angles to the coastline, while in the latter, structural trends are supposed to run parallel to the coast. Such a scheme is obviously very generalised and of no value for application to small areas. A less generalised system of classification was that proposed by the American geomorphologist, D.W. Johnson, in his book, “Shoreline Processes and Shoreline Development” (1919). This was based on the second of the factors mentioned by C.A.M. King (1980); namely, the movement of sea-level relative to the land. Thus, Johnson identified four main categories of coastline: submerged coasts, emergent coasts, neutral coasts, and compound coasts.
VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY
Technology today allows us to record, analyze, and evaluate the physical world to an unprecedented degree. Enterprises in the new millennium are increasingly relying on technology to ensure that they meet their mission requirements. It is important to note here that, “Educational organizations have been referred to as complex and arcane enterprises” (Massy, 1999). For educational institutions, this reliance on technology will require new mission statements, revised catalogs and other materials, different learning environments and methods of instruction, and, perhaps most significantly, new standards for measuring success. To achieve these objectives, several initiatives in the form of web based systems, simulations, games etcetera are being developed and tested. Among these approaches, simulations and games are found to be the most effective ones (Massy, 1999). The author will review one such initiative, namely ‘Virtual U’ also known as Virtual University (Virtual U Project, 2003). The author will begin with a brief review of the use of simulation and gaming approaches in educational institutions.
Gaming is considered to produce a wide range of learning benefits like, improvement of practical reasoning skills, higher levels of continuing motivation, and reduction of training time and instructor load (Jacobs & Dempsey, 1993). Games are effective communication tools because they are fun and engaging (Conte, 2003). Simulations are also very close to games. Simulations resemble games in that both contain a model of some kind of system and learners can provide both with input and observe the consequences of their actions (Leemkuil et al., 2000).
Virtual U was conceived and designed by William F. Massy, a professor and university administrator and the president of the Jackson Hole Higher Education Group (PR Newswire, 2000). The project was funded by 1 million dollar from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation in New York. Data were provided by the Institute for Research on Higher Education at the University of Pennsylvania In designing the game, Massy and Ausubel included detailed data from 1,200 U.S. academic institutions, as well as information culled from government sources . The first version of Virtual U which was released in the year 2000 was produced by Enlight Software of Hong Kong and was sold commercially for about 129 dollar .
The Virtual University system was developed along the lines of the popular game known as, ‘SimCity’. The primary objective of the Virtual U game was to develop the skills of the players for managing an educational institution. According to Moore and Williams ‘Virtual U will let you test your skill, judgment, and decisions’, while managing an educational institution. This game based environment has been designed specifically to enable any person to tackle various scenarios and problems that are usually encountered in an educational institution. “The game is driven by a powerful simulation engine that uses a combination of micro-analytic and system dynamics methods and draws on an extensive compilation of data on the U.S. higher education system” Technically the system was developed using C++ in a windows based environment. Virtual U in its current state does not run on the ‘Macintosh’ based systems due to the usage of proprietary windows based graphics. However, it is envisaged by the authors that a version for Macintosh users will be developed in the near future.
The Virtual U game employs several strategies and allows the user or the player as per his/her requirements. In general the player is appointed as the University president and allowed to manage the University as a whole. In this role the player is concerned about institution level policies, budget etcetera. Then there are scenario based strategies like improving teaching or research performance in a particular faculty, where the player assumes the role of a faculty head Lastly there are a possible 18 chance cards. Chance cards are emergency situations that arise during the game play and require immediate attention. Overall, Virtual University not only allows players to explore secondary and tertiary effects of a couple of years' worth of actions they might take as academic administrators but they can also customize it by adjusting everything from the size of the faculty and student body to the cost of maintaining campus roads and buildings .
ORGANIC FARMING
Agriculture has had a profound impact upon biological diversity. Agricultural specialization, mechanisation and intensification leading to compaction and soil erosion, and poor farm management, have resulted in a global decline in plant, invertebrate and bird numbers in recent decades (Stoate et al., 2001). The Law of Specialization has encouraged the clearing of natural habitat for the cultivation of a few species, with biodiversity being the victim of this “trade off” between productivity and variety. This “modern” approach to agriculture was encouraged and sponsored (i.e. through the Common Agricultural Policy – CAP) by the government after the Second World War. The impact of rationing was still fresh in the minds of the UK population and a concentrated effort was made to increase agricultural output. The “baby boom” of the 1950s also added incentive to these efforts. The drive to increase agricultural output was a great success. New fertilizers (N, P, K) and pesticides (DDT etc) were extremely successful at improving crop yields. As time went by however, evidence began to slowly emerge of environmental damage.
Despite growing environmental concerns, and numerous academic studies highlighting the negative impact upon floral diversity by modern agricultural practices, the world’s population is estimated to rise to 9-10 billion by 2050, which means there will be increasing pressure on land to build new homes. Consequently, global food security is heavily dependant upon technological advances in order to avoid Malthusians scenario of poverty and famine due to “overpopulation”. The question is whether organic farming is better for floral diversity compared with “modern” farming, but ultimately, even if evidence points to the fact that organic is more favourable than “modern methods”, the question will be will it be capable of meeting the growing demands placed on agriculture and solve environmental problems?
Rachel Carson sounded the warning bell against the processes and practices associated with agricultural intensification in her book, Silent Spring, published in 1962. In it Carson takes a negative view on the increasing use of agricultural chemicals "Since the mid-nineteen forties, over 200 basic chemicals have been created for use in killing insects, weeds, rodents and other organisms described in the modern vernacular as pests, and they are sold under several thousand different brand names. The sprays, dusts and aerosols are now applied almost universally to farms, gardens, forests and homes - non-selective chemicals that have the power to kill every insect, the good and the bad, to still the song of birds and the leaping of fish in the streams - to coat the leaves with a deadly film and to linger on in soil - all this, though the intended target may be only a few weeds or insects. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without making it unfit for all life? They should not be called 'insecticides' but 'biocides'
Carson also talked about the detrimental use of Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). Research in the intervening years have somewhat validated her basic argument, though there were some criticisms concerning inaccuracies in her book. The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs). POPs, of which DDT is one of a so called “dirty dozen”, are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic to humans and wildlife. In acting as a signatory to the Convention, the Government signalled its intention to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment.Our knowledge of the ways in which Biodiversity is essential for the survival of humans, in addition to many other species, is still evolving. From unidentified species to potentially undiscovered medicines, biodiversity is an issue of worldwide importance, providing natural resources which are essential for sustaining not only life on earth, but also economic activities. Biodiversity helps to maintain a healthy and stable environment in which businesses can operate, and its conservation is increasingly viewed by scientists, economists and businesses alike as a key part of economic stability.
FASHION INDUSTRY
The importance of fashion in our daily lives is a given. For individuals who work in the fashion industry, it is a profession in itself as well as a personal interest. For those outside the industry, fashion still plays a very important role. However, many people do not realize that fashion is also a valuable tool for analyzing culture and for assessing the values of that culture. Our fashion choices tell people who we are and what our standing is in society; in addition, our choices have an impact on our ability to succeed - or to fail - in certain areas of our lives. The topic of research for this proposal is an analysis of the ways in which clothing functions as a reflection of our culture, as well as a tool that can enhance or hinder our success in life.
People have been using clothing and accessories for centuries. In fact, as O'Neil has pointed out, clothing and accessories are not the only items used to decorate the body. Across the globe, the ways in which people present themselves vary widely. Items commonly used range from body and hair paint to decorative scarring, and from perfume to body deformation (O'Neil 2005: n.p.). Clothing is primarily worn, of course, for practical reasons, such as protection from the weather and outdoor elements. It is also worn to cover certain parts of the body, either out of modesty or cultural restrictions. The parts of the body that are covered may be different, depending upon the culture and location Clothing may also be used a sort of talisman to ward off evil, or a type of supernatural protection. In Christian populations, wearing a medal of St. Christopher is thought to protect the wearer from evil (O'Neil 2005: n.p.). In a similar vein, carrying a rabbit's foot or some other item associated with luck is a way of using supernatural assistance.
However, clothing is worn for more than the reasons stated above. O'Neil asserts that 'long before we are physically near enough to talk to people, their appearance announces their gender, age, economic class, and often even intentions' (2005: n.p.). Fashion is also a medium by which people communicate messages about gender, occupation, class, and wealth. This is something we learn to recognize when we are very young. We also come to recognize what O'Neil refers to as a 'vocabulary of dress'. In other words, in addition to the actual items of clothing we wear, there are other features that we have come to accept as part of 'dress'. Among these are hairstyles, makeup, and accessories such as jewelry. Additionally, body decoration such as tattoos and piercings have come to be considered part of the contemporary vocabulary of dress. According to Joanne Entwistle, 'in contemporary culture, the body has become the site of identity. We experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression' (2000: 138). An important aspect of fashion is its relationship to society at large. In recent years, this has become considerably more complex. The way we dress says a great deal more about us than many people realize. What we wear presents a statement to the world. It is another way of revealing certain information about ourselves to others: without saying a word, we give out clues about our social background, our economic status, and our images of ourselves. As Entwistle has suggested, 'dress is tied up to social life in more than one way: it is produced out of economic, political, technological conditions as well as shaped by social., cultural, aesthetic ideas' .The significance of clothing goes beyond what we wear. A pair of blue jeans is not just a pair of blue jeans. The brand is often just as - or more - important as the article of clothing. Brand recognition is a crucial factor in the world of fashion, especially for younger generations. Faedda asserts that 'for young people jeans have become a tool of social and political protest, of adherence and membership, symbol and emblem; for stylists jeans have become a trendy casual product, a refined prêt a porter article or quite a high fashion creation' .
FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS
Financial instruments package financial capital in readily tradeable forms. Their diversity of forms mirrors the diversity of risk that they manage. Financial Instruments can be categorised according to whether they are securities, derivatives of other instruments or so called cash securities. They can be categorised by 'asset class' depending on whether they are equity based or debt based. If it is a debt security, it can be further categorised into short term or long term. Financing a company through the sale of stock in a company is known as equity financing. Alternatively debt financing can be done to avoid giving up shares of ownership of the company.
There are a variety of forms of shares, ordinary shares entitle the holders to the remaining distributable profits after prior interests e.g. creditors and prior charge capital have been satisfied. Preference shares, which carry a fixed rate of dividend. Preference shareholders have a prior claim over ordinary shareholders to any company profits available for distribution.Bonus issues are when a company offers new shares to shareholders in proportion to the number that they already own, but without asking for more money. A warrant is essentially a long-term option on the shares of a company; it entitles the holder to purchase a stated number of shares at a specified price up to a certain date.Rights Issues is the most commonly used method of issuing shares involves offering new shares to existing shareholders in proportion to the number of shares already held at a price lower than the current market price.
A convertible loan carries as one of the terms of issue the option for the holder to convert his stock within a given time period into equity shares at a specified price.One of the most common forms of long-term debt finance is the debenture or loan stock. The holder of debenture is a creditor of the company who has a right to a fixed annual return with the promise of repayment of a fixed money sum either after a set term or on the winding-up of the company. A Eurobond is a bond issued in a currency other than the company’s home currency, in an overseas country. If it is sold exclusively in one country (in local currency) it is called a foreign bond.Deep Discount Bonds are variously known as Zero Coupon Bonds or Money Multiplier Bonds, depending upon the issuing company. The term 'Zero Coupon' arises, as these bonds are cumulative in nature and do not give any interest during their term. Junk Bonds are high yield bonds issued by companies that are considered highly speculative because of risk of default.
The advantages of ordinary shares are there is no fixed charge attached to them. Only if the company generates enough earnings it will pay dividend but has no legal obligation to do so. They have no fixed maturity date and also increase the creditworthiness of the firm by providing a buffer against losses for creditors. Ordinary shares can also be sold more easily than debentures, since they offer a higher expected return then debentures or preference shares, and provide a better hedge against inflation.The disadvantages of using ordinary shares are that they extend voting rights to the new holders, which could threaten the control over the company by the existing owner managers. More shares used leads to a wider distribution of profits. The cost of underwriting and distributing new issues of ordinary shares are usually very high and also the company’s cost of capital will rise due to the increase proportion of equity finance. Finally, dividends are not tax deductible, like interest payment on debentures, which can reduce profits available and can increase the cost of equity relative to debt.
ACCOUNTING AND CORORATE FINANCE
CAPM is used for the valuation of securities and investments using a Discounted Cash Flow . Its aim is to define the relationship between return and risk on investments and securities by measuring the risk-adjusted interest rate. The ideology behind this model, assumes that a vigilant investor will invest in a security with an expectation of a market rate of return with minimal risk. However, investors must also realise that market rate of return reflects a market rate of risk.
Ideally, investment risk is assessed by using beta; Beta is the overall risk in investing in a large market. Beta measures the correspondence between the value of the security and the market. Beta is used in calculation of interest rates for CAMP. Financially, every company has its own beta (risk) according to their risk assessment; whereas, the overall market has its beta of 1.0. If the beta of a security is, more than 1.0 it poses higher risk but better return on investment and a beta lower than 1.0 poses lower risk with lower return.Realistically, there are number of risks associated with companies other than overall market. A cautious investor will not examine a company's beta in isolation before concluding on an investment decision. Regardless of a good beta and minimal threat from the market, a company is also exposed to other risks as a possibility of the popularity of the chain, locality and so forth.
Practically, there are uncertainties with the estimation of equity risk premiums as it comprises of working backwards from market profit growth forecasts and current share prices to the equity risk premium. Practically, this is inadequate for valuation of risk in shares. Advertently, risks that are unconnected to the market can be controlled by diversification of the shares' portfolio; whereas, risks correlated with the market are uncontrollable. Factually, there are two types of risk associated with companies: systematic and unsystematic risks. Systematic risks in company's cash flows, which are unconnected and unspecific to the company. Conversely, unsystematic risks in company's cash flow are associated with factors specific to the company.
In evaluation of the accounts of Next plc and Marks Spencer, the application of CAPM would render the following results:According to the Next Balance Sheet fore 2004 and 2005 there appears to be a dramatic increase in the shareholders funds. In 2004, funds stood at 155.1 And in 2005, it was 272.7 this is an increase of 75%. Additionally, share capital decreased to 26.1 from 26.5 this was consequent to the buy back of shares. Goodwill valuation has decreased by £4.3million from £36.2million to £31.9million, which is reflected in the revaluation reserves figure.
The figures in consolidated cash flow statement of Next Plc represent a consistent and stable cash flow as the company debt has depreciated over the year 2004 and 2005. This is reflected by the decrease in finance lease payment, which was £150m in 2004 and only £60m in 2005. Total net debt had reduced to £250.8Million in 2005 in comparison to the 2004 figure at £306.9m. There had been incredible recovery from negative figure of £4.3million as a decrease in cash in 2004, contrasting with the increase in cash in 2004 at a positive figure of £2.0million.On the other hand, the consolidated cash flow statement of M&S represents a constant and significant decrease in cash inflow, according to the figures 2004 there was an increase of cash inflow at £164.6m, whereas in 2005, there was a decrease of in cash flow with a negative figure of -£120.4m. Inadvertently, this is a -73% of decrease in cash inflow (-120.4/164.6*100= -73%) this is reflected by the extra expenditure in the acquisition of subsidiaries (extra cost of £125.9m) and dramatic reduction in management of finances.
DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION
Famous for it’s Cathedral and the legendary exploits of Lady Godiva Coventry has, in the modern era, been known for the extensive bombardment during the Second World War and the growth (and subsequent decline) of the British Motor Industry. Canterbury is a cathedral city in the county of Kent in southeast England and is also the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the primate of the Church of England. The form of both cities today is the result of the role of architects and planners in the planning and redevelopment of post-war British towns and cities. The deficiencies of the pre-war city (e.g. congestion, pollution and disorder) were contrasted with the promise of an aesthetically and morally ordered modern townscape. Historical perspectives are the crucial links that contextualise the evolution of spatial planning in Coventry and Canterbury – without understanding how history has helped shape the forms of these two cities it would be impossible to determine the factors involved in establishing the modern setting.
Prior to exploring the evolution of the form of modern day Coventry and Canterbury, it is instructive to briefly review the issue of local planning. The town and country planning system provides the main framework of land use in Britain. This aims to secure the most efficient and effective use of land in the public interest.
Local authorities usually decide on whether to allow proposals to build on land or to allow its use to change. Development plans set out the authority’s policies and proposals for the development and use of land in its area. The development plan guides and informs day to day decisions as to whether or not planning permission should be granted, under the system known as development control. In order to ensure that those decisions are rational and consistent, they must be made in accordance with the development plan adopted by the authority. There must be public consultation and proper regard to other relevant matters (sometimes called ‘material considerations’). The law (Section 54A of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990) requires that decisions made should be in accordance with the development plan unless material considerations indicate otherwise. Although plans do not have to be rigidly followed, they provide a firm basis for rational and consistent planning decisions. They give everyone concerned with development in an area a measure of certainty about what kind of development will and will not be permitted during the life of the plan. Local plans and UDPs identify particular areas as suitable for housing, employment, retail or other uses, and set out the policies that the authority proposes to apply in deciding whether or not development will be permitted. The preparation of development plans gives the community the opportunity to influence the policies and proposals for the future development and use of land in their areas. Because the development plan forms the statutory basis for planning decisions, it is important that local people are involved in their preparation. There are several opportunities for people to make their views known during the preparation process.
Coventry is the ninth largest city in England with a population of 304,746 (2002 estimate), located in the West Midlands of England. Near the M6, M69 and M40 motorways, it is also served by the A45 and A46 roads. For rail, Coventry railway station is served by the West Coast Main Line, and has regular rail services between London and Birmingham (and stations beyond). It is also served by railway lines to Nuneaton via Bedworth. There is a line linking it to Leamington Spa and onwards to the south coast. Bus services in Coventry are operated by Travel West Midlands (under the name Travel Coventry) and Stagecoach. The nearest major airport is Birmingham International Airport, some 10 miles (16km) to the west of the city. Coventry has its own airport, Baginton, which is largely a freight airport. The Coventry Canal terminates in the city centre. The Coventry Canal is a narrow Canal in England which travels for 38 miles (65 km) between Coventry and Fradley Junction, just north of Lichfield, where it joins the Trent and Mersey Canal. It also runs through the towns of Bedworth, Nuneaton, Atherstone, Polesworth and Tamworth.
In the 18th century Coventry became home to a number of French immigrants, who brought with them silk and ribbon weaving skills, which became the basis of Coventry's economy. Coventry began to recover, and again became a major centre of a number of clothing trades. During the 19th century Coventry became a centre of a number of industries, including watch and clock making, manufacture of sewing machines, and from the 1880s onwards bicycle manufacture, which was pioneered by James Starley. Due to this industrialisation Coventry's population grew rapidly.
TOURISM AND GLOBALISATION
Tourism’ is the all-encompassing term for the movement of people to destinations away from their place of residence for any reason other than following an occupation. The World Tourism Organisation, a United Nations body, defines a tourist as “someone who travels at least eighty kilometres (fifty miles) from home for the purpose of recreation” Individuals and communities around the globe are more connected to each other than ever before. Information and money are rapidly transmitted intra- and internationally, goods and services produced in one part of the world are increasingly available universally, and international travel and communication is routine. Advancing technology and leaps of progress in engineering have effectively resulted in a minimised world. Depending on political standpoint, this increasingly interconnected global marketplace either represents an enormous achievement for mankind, or a potentially devastating progression into the twenty-first century. Meetings of bodies such as G8, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank often generate large demonstrations, as witnessed in Prague in September, 2000, organised by Prague-based International Campaign against Globalization.
Tourism comprises around 5 per cent of the world’s GDP (gross domestic product), and over 200 hundred million people are employed in some form of travel and tourism worldwide (Frangialli, 2001). International tourism is a major export; indeed, in over 150 countries, representing eighty percent of nations worldwide, tourism is one of the five top export earners. In more than sixty countries, tourism is the number one export, and in the Czech Republic tourism accounts for 7 per cent of overall exports and over 40 per cent of service exports . With nationals of 45 countries spending an average of 1 billion euros annually while travelling abroad, including Germans who spend over 50 billion euros and the Dutch who expend almost 14 billion euros, inbound and domestic tourism is increasingly viewed as a reliable and predominant means of national development.
One of the most significant forces for change in the world today, tourism is now regarded by many as the world's largest industry. It prompts regular mass migrations of people, processes of development, exploitation of resources, and inevitable repercussions on places, economies, societies and environments (Williams, 1999). Many factors have encouraged the development of both domestic and international forms of tourism, and they exert differing economic, environmental and socio-cultural impacts upon destinations. Both as an industry and as a social phenomenon, tourism can be responsible for a renowned speed and scale of change to a location. But at the dawn of the twenty-first century, the challenges of change can seem more daunting than ever before, especially evident in terms of globalisation, the IT revolution, the democratic challenge, and the new consumer.
Globalisation (as discussed later) represents the intensification of relationships between locations, increasingly shaping the phenomenon in addition to being shaped by it. It denotes the expansion of competition in the tourism industry, as both the reach of transnational capital and the tourist's ‘imagined’ world are effectively ‘globalised’. Although the demise of mass tourism is greatly exaggerated, consumers have become increasingly differentiated, and this has severely influenced the tourist map, with few places escaping the increasingly conflicting demands of diverse groups of tourists . Similarly, the IT revolution is partially responsible for, and facilitates, globalisation, and promises to transform the productivity of tourism capital, challenging the meaning of tourism itself. Nations are now faced with the task of constructing new democratic models which can both regulate and allow commitment to the challenges and opportunities of an increasingly globalised, technology-driven and discriminating world in which the tourist is king. This has led to a growing interest in models of participatory democracy that, in the realm of tourism, has been especially evident in the debate regarding the construction of effective and impartial partnerships in the pursuit of sustainable tourism .An example of a typical response to these challenges, in 1998, the Royal Geographical Society established the Limited Life Working Party on the Geography of British Tourism. Its remit was to review the current state of British tourism, and to determine a research agenda for the challenges of a changing tourist industry. The work of this group was surrounded five working papers on production, consumption, localities, the environment and public policy (GLTRG, 2000), and while neither exclusive nor comprehensive, the papers provided an organisational framework for addressing both the substantive and methodological challenges facing tourism. First publicly presented at a conference at the University of Exeter in September 1999, the papers resulted in revealing discussions which indicated that the organisational framework discussed possessed a resonance beyond the national arena. It is envisaged by many institutions that these research papers will contribute to the shared efforts of international scholars to engage with and understand the increasingly complex and rapidly changing world of tourism.
OCCUPATIONAL ANALYSIS
Occupation is important in maintaining health but certain occupations may actually cause ill health. Ill health may lower occupational performance. The relationship is further complicated by poor performance contributing to ill health which further lowers performance. An example would be someone performing poorly in paid employment and becoming depressed as an indirect result (perhaps because of redeployment) and performing even more poorly as a result of the depression. A goal of occupational therapy is to use appropriate occupation therapeutically to counteract the effects of disability and to promote well being.
The effect of some disease processes on performance will now be explored. Certain pathological conditions will have a typical effect on performance for instance a cerebrovascular accident, a not uncommon cause of occupational dysfunction, will affect sensation and motor skills in a fairly predictable way. The degree of impairment is variable depending on the aetiology, severity and location of the cerebral injury. The effects may be profound. Laterality is important since one side of the brain has a major impact on language and the other motor skills. Which side of the brain is dominant for various functions depends on whether or not the individual is right handed. Occupational performance is affected by sensorimotor deficit and subsequent musculosketal affects for instance significant sensorimotor deficit commonly affects the shoulder joint with its innate dependence on good muscular tone of the rotator cuff from which the joint largely derives its stability. Disruption of cognitive function and emotional liability are factors commonly involved in severe cerebrovascular accidents to the further detriment of performance.
Of the musculoskeletal group of disorders Rheumatoid arthritis is important since it is so common. In addition to affecting movement by joint deformity, sensorineural and neuromuscular effects the individual may suffer psychological effects such as depression further limiting performance (Deyo 1982). Temporal effects are important in this condition, typically the symptoms and performance being significantly worse in the morning and improving as the day progresses.Schizophrenia is an example of a psychiatric illness which can become chronic and disabling. The effects on occupational performance can get really complex here. Not only are there varying manifestations of the illness with exacerbations sometimes accompanied by ultimate deterioration over time but there is often effects of the medication, substance abuse and disordered living arrangements.
Chronic pain may affect occupational performance by limitation of physical components of the activity in question. Some conditions appear resistant to clear diagnosis. For instance following accidents such as whiplash or back pain following lifting during paid employment there may be long drawn out background litigation and this coupled with difficulties returning to work may have significant effects on occupational performance. Because affected individuals may be young, in paid employment and with families to look after despite the fact that the physical disability may be relatively minor there may be major effects on the activities of daily living, leisure and employment.
Occupational performance can be split into a number of components: sensorimotor, cognitive integration, cognitive, psychosocial and psychological. In addition the performance cannot be taken out of context.The individual’s personal characteristics will affect quality of performance. There must be a good fit between the individual’s knowledge, skills and attitudes, the task must be appropriate, contributing to well-being and the environment must be conducive with regard to physical, cultural and social aspects; (Hagedorn, 2001). Context is important (Dunn 1994) for instance it is easy to speak with friends but public speaking is another matter entirely performance nearly always suffering substantially and yet the basics of the task are the same.
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND PUBLIC HEALTH
The latest triennial maternal mortality report reveals that for the years 2000-2002 eleven new mothers were murdered, within six weeks of giving birth, by their partners. The report highlights that domestic violence is a risk factor for maternal death from all causes. In this report 14 percent of all the women who died had declared that they were subjected to domestic violence. This translates to 51 women in England, Wales and Northern Ireland over the three year period. If progress is to be made in reducing maternal mortality careful note needs to be taken of all the risk factors. Risk assessment is currently a means by which the type of care received by the woman in pregnancy and labour is determined. This midwifery role is already well established for antenatal and intrapartum care.
Domestic violence has a high prevalence. Crime figures for a single day, 28th September 2000, were obtained and publicised form British police forces. On that day there were 1 300 calls to the police reporting domestic violence. Extrapolating from this there is an incidence of domestic violence every six to 20 seconds. Most of the victims are women. According to Home office figures two women die in Britain each week from violence by either their current or their previous partner . A study in London found in a sample of women on antenatal and postnatal wards a 23% lifetime experience of domestic violence. Three percent of these women were encountering domestic violence in the present pregnancy .
What constitutes domestic violence varies tremendously. It does not have to be physical violence. This is problematic. Collection of statistics is hampered by the blurring of the boundaries between the abuse severity. Whilst it can be agued that no level of abuse is acceptable some distinction needs to be drawn. Pregnancy may act as a trigger for domestic violence; it may start at this time or change in nature sometimes becoming mental rather than physical but sometimes being more focussed on blows to the abdomen. The puerperium is a time of particular vulnerability .The high prevalence of domestic violence impacts economically on society. The costs of dealing with 100,000 women seeking medical help annually due to domestic violence and the fact that of applications for shelter on account of homelessness 17 per cent are caused by domestic violence may be costing London alone approximately 250 million dollar each year. Support systems are overstretched; there are 7 000 women and children looking for places of safety every day .
Physical violence to a pregnant woman increases the risk of miscarriage, premature labour, low birth weight and intrauterine fetal death. Domestic violence may increase the likelihood of a pregnant woman smoking, drinking alcohol or taking drugs with deleterious effects on the pregnancy and fetus. Domestic violence is associated with depression and suicide attempts. Trauma to the abdomen incurs risk of life threatening placental abruption, rupture of the uterus or other internal organs in addition to the fetal risks. Women incurring domestic violence are less likely to be able to access antenatal care, many book late and a significant proportion not at all. They have problems accessing care and often default on visits, change addresses and have no reliable means of being contacted. Often the partner will exercise stifling control over them and accompany them during visits to the midwife, answer questions for them and remain present during examinations .The Department of Health’s National Service Framework (2004) for Children, Young people and Maternity Services states the importance of identifying victims of domestic violence and includes pointers for recognition and action during pregnancy and recommends that staff should be aware of the importance of these aspects. Some emphasis is put on the supportiveness of the environment and the sensitivity of the enquiry about the abuse.The Government has looked closely at the issue of domestic violence . Parliament has legislated via the Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004. This has extended police powers of arrest for common assault under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. This has had some effect with a dawn raids to intercept offenders argues that to really tackle the issue of domestic violence people in general must become involved and this includes health care providers .
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
“The industrial revolution is precisely the expansion of undeveloped forces, the sudden growth and blossoming of seeds which had for years lain hidden or asleep.”Paul Mantoux’s quote regarding the industrial revolution is used to describe the range of different phenomena that constituted this watershed moment in British, European and world history. This is because the industrial revolution cannot be pigeon‑holed. It was not a government policy and none of what occurred politically, socially, culturally or economically in Britain between 1780 and 1914 came from design but rather was the result of a historical accident of a sequence of key factors all occurring during the same timeframe. The period represented a transition from early modern history to modernity, with many of the social and economic ills that arrest much of the contemporary world today first acted out in the newly industrialised areas of the UK in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The industrial revolution affected the entire structure of British society, from the monarchy to the previously numerically dominant peasant classes, from agricultural workers to merchants. There is no doubt that a momentous shift had taken place: the far‑reaching legacy of the changes that occurred during the period 1780 and 1914 culminated in the Great War where the casualty figures soared into the millions as opposed to the thousands who were, for instance, killed in the Battle of Culloden, testimony in itself to the enormous changes in machinery and industry that was witnessed during this revolutionary time. Yet to describe it as a ‘revolution’ invites further analysis.
Although the transformation was wholesale it would be incorrect to think of Britain in 1780 as being an underdeveloped nation. As is always the case when taking a chronological look at history, it becomes apparent that the period immediately leading up to 1780 was a crucial time in laying the foundations for the sweeping changes which were about to take place. By this point in history England had the fastest growing empire of any of the traditional European powers, was in possession of the largest navy in the world (essential in terms of acquiring and maintaining an empire in the eighteenth century) and was home to a true metropolis with regards to the capital city. “The dominance of London was fully established, and this had helped to create that integration and rationalisation of the cultural, political and economic life of the nation which was to bring significant benefits in the eighteenth century.”
In many ways, Britain during this time was a country that had already shed its medieval skin. The huge shift in the number of people who had to work to survive proves the truth in the assumption that England had ceased to be a society based along the middle ages notion of landed aristocracy and its inherently unpopular feudal system. Thus, English history bore witness to the birth of the modern proletariat; “not here meant in the special sense of the creation of the factory labour force, but as a broad description of the protracted process by which working for wages, characteristic of perhaps a quarter of England’s population during the reign of Henry VIII, became the condition of more than 80 per cent by the mid nineteenth century.”
In certain areas of Britain the social, political, cultural and economic changes that this period of history bequeathed constitute a complete, grass roots revolution whereby the look of certain places in 1914 bore no resemblance to their appearance in 1780. While the early modern period that preceded the industrial revolution saw the growth of London and trade, the period of the later 1700’s saw the north of England experience something of a re‑birth, as a direct result of the industrial revolution. Previously, many areas of the North were little more than buffer towns; populations constructed to keep out any potential Scottish invasion from the north but offering little to the growth of the English economy. But the industrial revolution altered the entire relationship between North and South, re‑instigating a sense of purpose in the people north of Birmingham. “Many once great centres were on their way to the pleasant obscurity of county rather than national fame: York, Exeter, Chester, Worcester, Salisbury.”
First and foremost, the industrial revolution, exacerbated by the increase in production of cotton in the North‑West after the 1770’s and the invention of Arkwright’s water‑frame, swelled the physical constitution of the population and began a permanent migration away from the countryside to the towns as a result of industry gradually usurping agriculture as the lifeblood of the nation. Liverpool, for example, was seventh in the list of European capital cities by 1850 with Manchester ninth. This had the overall effect of creating urban centres of concentrated wealth with large sectors of the new proletariat class.
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Improvements in technology meant that more people travelled to London and Paris to live and work, thus more of them could travel within and beyond the city limits. That was due to the increase in the provision of public transport. In the early part of the period 1820 to 1990 was the advent of the railways. The first successful rail service between Stockton and Darlington was developed by George Stephenson provided the impetus for a great expansion of railways . As respective capital cities London and Paris were logically at the centre of their national rail networks. Technically speaking, although the train services into, from and in London were providing a public service they were privately owned until after 1945. Britain had a head start over France when it came to the amount and density or rail and track not only in the capital but nationally as well, over 750 kilometres squared compared to between 250-499 kilometres squared for France . The advent of the railways meant that the Londoners and Parisians could have better links to the provinces, also cities such as Newcastle and Marseilles were easier to reach. The railways also meant that other parts of their cities were easier to get to . Southern Railway that ran the majority of train services in and around London was the only private rail operator that was regularly in profit .
Linked to the spread of the railways was the adoption of underground – systems in both London and Paris. The underground and metro systems offered the capacity and ability to carry millions of commuters daily without causing as much disruption as having all the rail tracks above ground. London expanded its operative underground -system in 1890 and Paris alongside other cities followed within a decade. The London underground is roughly double the size of the Paris metro since the completion of its last extension in 1999 with 392 kilometres or 244 miles of track with 280 stations . In contrast to the railways the London underground continued to expand during the 1960s and beyond. The new Victoria Line of the 1960s was followed by the Jubilee Line and the extension of the system to Heathrow Airport in the 1970s . The underground systems gave the advantage of transporting more people with greater speed than other forms of both private and public transport. At that point cars and buses were barely in existence. Even as cars became more common they remained out of the price range of many Londoners and Parisians until the 1950s. Using public transport had the advantage of being cheaper without the need to worry about parking or having to stay stuck in traffic jams .
Another way that public transport has made on the social shaping of technology in London and Paris was the role of buses. Prior to the invention of the internal combustion engine there had been the horse driven bus. However, the buses driven by petrol or diesel engines were able to carry more passengers further than their horse driven predecessors. Buses could pick passengers up from places where the train and the underground did not go. Buses were introduced into London and other British cities from 1898 . Buses tended to operate later services than the trains did in London. Within London and outside it, train companies before the Second World War often ran bus services. The Second World War led to London’s travel infrastructure been badly damaged whilst Paris had escaped heavy bombing although other parts of the French rail and roads had been destroyed .
In most respects the coming of railways amply demonstrated the social shaping of technology. It helped to speed the movement of people from the smaller towns and villages to major cities such as London and Paris. The railways allowed goods or people to travel much faster and also generated great wealth for their investors. Such wealth was shown in the elegant stations such as King’s Cross and Paris du Nord. The railways employed thousands directly or indirectly whilst transporting millions more.France had been slower in building railways than Britain yet managed to double the amount of track it had between 1880 and 1913 . The railway workers and other transport workers shaped society in ways linked to technology or in times of industrial disputes the refusal to use that technology. Both the British and French transport workers had a reputation for their radical trade unionism. In the British General strike of May 1926 support amongst London’s transport workers was solid and not a bus, train or underground train ran for nine days . France tended to be more prone to strikes than Britain. In the summer of 1936, Paris and the rest of the country came to a halt after a series of strikes spread to the transport workers after starting at Renault . Even in more recent times strikes on the metro are frequent, especially if the French trade unions are unhappy with their government. Unlike their counterparts in London most Parisians can walk to work if that happens .
BUSINESS INFORMATION SYSTEM
Business Information Systems is business on the Internet for the benefit of all. It is essentially electronic business. The horizon of e-business encompasses the globe, free from the limited scope of customary bricks and mortar shops. It is the selling of products and services online, which is termed also as e-commerce. Although the term “electronic commerce” is related more with business to consumer (B2C) applications IT has enabled this to cross over into the business-to-business field as well. Through business information systems, purchasing processes are contoured to handle orders and their delivery, thus resulting in minimal paper work and labour required. Earlier, it was a practice to do business in hard copy for invoices and purchase orders. Now, documents in bulk, with particular format or data keying, are transferred electronically. A business can manage its Catalogue online by maintaining it up-to-date and current on its supplies, prices, discounts, without reprinting its catalogues.
The Fine food Company, an established name in the food industry has finally made up its mind to run its business activities on the escalator of latest technology, to keep abreast with the changing times. Earlier, it was operating its business on a paper-based traditional set up. The company wants to increase its turnover by 10% and net profits to 9 per cent and hopes to be accredited for BS5750 within next 6 months. This decision of the management of the Fine Food Company (FFC) will certainly increase its reputation. A food conglomerate has to cater to a varied customer base through its shops and supermarkets, catering to standard and priority orders for quick delivery. A food company, working in a traditional set up has to handle its sales activities through its sales persons, who receive orders, payments, see through the orders to their fulfillment and answer routine questions. Customers are categorized geographically, depending on a customer’s type and product demand. A sales head can change his mindset to change a customer into a different category at any moment.
The Fine Food Company has appointed an Information systems expert, to manage the affairs of the smooth running of its newly created IT department. In a paper-based communication, order processing can be quite a cumbersome procedure to follow. Order copies have to be retained by sales people and sent to the warehousing and distribution departments in date-wise format so that at the time of delivery, they are accompanied with an invoice and consignment note. The delivery man has to bring back a signed copy of the consignment.
Warehousing involves keeping the produce in different temperature zones and shifting the goods to different locations, upkeep of raw products and finished goods. Card files have to be maintained manually whenever updating is required. David Jenkins has to see that all these complexities can be removed by opting for different solutions that go along with the FFC scheme to incorporate those software solutions with a range of proprietary software like Epicor eWarehouse. A food company’s manufacturing process involves simple repackaging to not so simple enlisting of detail of different recipes. Keeping this in mind, software should integrate with the central system. To run a micro supply chain, different interfaces are required for the stability of the product. Otherwise, the finances of a food company that is still working on obsolete, labour intensive framework, could be quite complex to handle.
E-COMMERCE
Electronic commerce has revolutionised the entire process of business operation and transaction itself in the day-to-day business. The growth of electronic commerce is mainly with the technological advancements and the innovative methods of sales and conducting transactions over the Internet. Alongside, the increase in the competition and the continuous globalisation of the business organizations with the presence of conglomerates both at the national and international markets has created the need for electronic commerce as an alternative to leverage growth in business and generate revenue. Retail sector in the UK accounts for a major portion of the nation’s annual revenue. The increase in customer demand for new products as well as the flexibility for shopping online, the electronic commerce has made a tremendous impact in the actual form of retailing itself.
In this report, the author aims to analyse the impact of electronic commerce over the retail sector and the extent to which electronic commerce has reached the general public. The aim of this report is to analyse the impact of electronic commerce on TESCO Plc: the leading retailer of the UK. The research is accomplished to analyse the growth and impact of electronic commerce in the business society of the UK,to research the effect of electronic commerce on the retail sector as a whole ,to conduct a case study analysis on TESCO Plc using secondary data resources to conduct a primary research analysis on the electronic retailing approach of TESCO Plc ,Critically analyse the impact of the electronic commerce on the entire retail sector.
The increase in the competition and the globalisation with the presence of big players like the Wal Mart, Marks and Spencer, etc., the competitors in the retail sector are increasingly leveraging the internet for not only the web-presence but essentially for generating revenue. The fact that the supermarket chains in the UK are facing stiff competition and TESCO Plc being the leader in the UK supermarket segment of the retail sector has deployed the electronic commerce to reach a larger segment of customers in the UK. The research mainly aims to throw light on the fact that the electronic commerce mode of business is viable in the case of Supermarket chains where the products are mainly consumable and easily perishable as opposed to other segments of the retail sector like clothing and footwear.
The research embraces both the analysis of the secondary data as well as the primary data in order to provide both the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the topic under debate. A critical analysis on the research methodology is presented to the reader in the later chapters of the report. The research relies on the first hand data collected through questionnaire for justifying and analysing the secondary research information gathered through the academic resources like journals, books and market reports.
INTERNET ADDICTION
Internet has been the buzzword for the people around the world in the last decade. Very few people will disagree about the fact that everyone likes to do most of their activities in the most easiest and flexible way possible. Ease and Flexibility is what Internet has provided to the mankind irrespective of profession or leisure based activity. Today internet is widely used by the business world for conducting their daily chores and by individuals to interact, learn and relax. Almost everything can be done online even if it is not in its true physical sense. The multifaceted benefits of internet are so compelling that even governments are taking the initiative to include it in their national policymaking. There is absolutely no doubt in the authors mind that Internet does provide a lot of convenience to the society but is that all. In this report the author will elaborate the darker side of internet and its implications on the individuals and society on the whole.
When the government starts actively promoting the use of internet nationwide, people ranging from every age group are bound to venture into the cyberspace. Many users utilize the perils of internet and use it for the right purpose only but others fall prey to the dark side of internet. These people who are lured into the dark work internet are usually categorized as Internet addicts. Addiction may be considered as the condition of being habitually or compulsively occupied with or involved in something. In most cases it includes alcoholism, drug addiction, smoking, gambling and watching television etc. Previous research shows that internet can also be addictive An in depth look into the literature suggest that there are two different views while stating internet as addictive. On one side a collection of researchers believe that internet addiction can be compared with substance addiction whereas others are of the opinion that it has relevance with pathological gambling. There is a lot of difference in opinion and the available research does not pin point any evidence based cause for the internet to be termed as addictive Even after the disagreement among researchers the following activities are generally categorized as addictive on the internet: Online Chatting, Online Shopping, Online Gambling, Exchanging messages using Online Message Boards, Browsing explicit sexual content and to some extent using emails. Few of these like gambling, shopping and viewing of sexual content are accepted as addiction with more ease than the others but the fact that each of them can have severe implications can be seen from the discussion in the next section.
In the previous section a list of possible online activities were presented which may be categorized as addiction. Most of the mentioned categorize are causing major problems in the main categories of everyday life including family, work, relationship and children.In family arena a member of the family who has become an internet addict tends to withdraw from the family and spend a lot of time surfing the net and in a way moves away from the family. In many cases the other family members are of the view that internet had hijacked their close one from them. In relationships the partners who have ventured into the world of cyberspace start giving preference to internet over their other partner and are resulting in divorce in many cases [Welford, 1999]. In professional life or rather in the office people are spending more time in exchanging personal emails and messages through chatting rather than concentrating on their work and are loosing productive time. Even after many warnings the employees are continuing to do so and as a result are loosing their jobs. Another major problem that has increased substantially over the last decade in the use of the internet for sex related activities. This becomes even worse when children are exposed to such explicit material. This will be covered in detail in the following sections. Online gambling has become the second most hated menace after online pornography as this gives a lot of people an easy option to gamble 24 hours a day sitting in a relaxed atmosphere. As a result of this more and more people are becoming bankrupt.
Apart from the above consequences there are many other smaller damages that internet is having on individuals like provoking them to lie and cover-up for their addiction and keep secrets from their close ones. An entire book can written on this topic citing numerous real life examples but due to the limitations of this report the major negative effects of internet addiction therefore may be summarized as Families in crisis, Lost Jobs, College expulsion, destroyed marriage, deepening depression, mounting debts, broken trust, pedophiles stalking kids and teenagers breaking down.
GLOBAL CULTURE
A global culture can be seen in one of two ways. One suggests that today’s communications and technologies allow a more open spread of culture around the world – people in far corners of the globe are able to be aware of and share each others culture. It is a view that sees global culture as generally positive – something that encourages diversity and a mixing of culture and has enabled people around the world to overcome national boundaries to embrace common causes. The more common perception of global culture is that of a Western, predominantly American culture gradually imposing itself around the world, often to the detriment of long established local cultures. For analysts opposed to globalisation this type of global culture is slowly killing diversity and devastating traditional ways of life. Scholte suggests that this viewpoint is that:
“Globalisation introduces a single world culture centred on consumerism, mass media, Americana and the English language” It is this type of global culture in particular that transnational companies are linked to and are generally happy to promote.Transnational companies have become economic superpowers as globalisation has spread and the development of a global culture is seen to benefit them economically. Certainly the potential wealth that the transnationals can offer to indigenous populations can take precedence over the upholding of local tradition and culture. The basic human desire to accumulate wealth can often override cultural, ethnic and religious factors when transnational companies set their sights on economic expansion in a particular area.
A global culture involves the spread of popular cultural icons around the globe, often diluting and overriding local cultures with the threat that the vast cultural diversity that the world offers will one day be submerged beneath a dull uniformity. Advances in technology and communications have helped propagate cultural globalisation. Digital communication, satellite television and the Internet are methods of communication that can overcome any national boundaries or government control .Deregulation of media ownership along with technological advances combined in the latter decades of the twentieth century to allow the largest media companies to establish networks in many countries. This media influence gives companies the opportunity to promote their own cultural preferences and it is notable that the global media is dominated by the same eight transnational media companies that dominate the US media: General Electric, AT&T Media, Disney, Time Warner, Sony, News Corporation, Viacom & Seagram and Bertelsmann . These companies aggressively seek to become global players – the US market is largely developed and the global markets provide better opportunities for expansion and getting ahead of the competition – Time Warner predict that non-US sales will yield the majority of their revenue within the next decade. With the global expansion of US media companies comes the global expansion of US culture. The power of Hollywood is one of the prime examples of cultural globalisation with an American agenda. A seemingly endless line of films promoting an American cultural and political agenda emanate from Hollywood and have driven independent film making in many regions either out of business or underground. Some countries such as Norway, Mexico and South Africa have seen government subsidies try to support domestic film production companies, whilst the success of the Indian ‘Bollywood’ film industry is one of few examples of cinema audiences resisting the spread of a global culture. The economic benefits to the transnationals can be huge. Cable and digital television channels across the globe are owned by the major transnational companies and are hugely important parts of their revenue streams. Major Hollywood studios were expecting revenue from global TV rights to their film libraries to have exceeded 11 billion dollar by the end of 2002 .
E-PUBLISHING
One of the biggest challenges for organisations and businesses these days is to keep themselves updated with the latest technology. The developments in Internet technology & Electronic Media has changed the way we live and work today and it has become imperative for businesses to adapt themselves with these developments to be able to compete and survive in the market. In this essay we will discuss how this has affected the publishing industry and whether it implies that e-publishing will replace traditional publishing in the future. The essay will discuss and analyse the benefits offered by e-publishing as compared to traditional publishing and will also look at the challenges faced by e-publishing. Then on the basis of this analysis, the appropriate conclusion will be presented in the end.
Traditional publishing can be defined as the publishing of information, whether text, pictures or images on paper or a similar tangible material. The information is thus available in form of books, newspapers, journals, leaflets, brochures etc. On the other hand e-publishing, also known as electronic publishing, web publishing or online publishing can be defined as the publication of information in mostly electronic intangible formats. Information by means of e-publishing is provided through the internet, by emails, on CD-ROMs and e-books etc. The popularity of e-publishing as compared to traditional publishing has certainly grown in recent years. The main factors contributing to this are as follows:
Mobile phones and internet access have become a necessity today. The new technologies like 3G and WiFI has made it possible to have access to the internet on the mobile phones, laptops and PDAs (Personal Digital Assistant) even on the move. The developments of these technologies and its increasing use by people has also resulted in reduced costs and with upcoming advance technologies like WiMAX, access to the internet will become very cheap, if not free in the future. This has resulted in greater opportunities for the e-publishing industry to provide all kinds of information – news, sports, entertainment, advertising etc. directly to the targeted audience and customers on these hand held and portable devices. This also allows providing up to date information on all matters such as news, weather, stocks, and sports e.g. ball by ball updates of a cricket match etc. Further developments in devices such as PDAs, Pocket PCs, mobile phones and laptops will result in these devices being able to support even more applications and services. Also these devices will be available for the end-user at very reasonable prices and will be more compact allowing greater portability. This will therefore, further widen the scope for the e-publishing industry.
The target audience, customers and consumers for most organisations and businesses especially in relations to the publishing industry has become global. Also Globalisation has contributed to the formation of MNCs (Multi-National Companies) and giant organisations operating in many countries. Therefore there is now a constant need for communication and flow of information across borders. Traditional publishing methods are failing to meet this demand as it is too costly and time consuming exchanging information in this format. In contrast, by using e-publishing methods, it is possible to provide information almost instantaneously anywhere in the world. Most organisations therefore now prefer to circulate information within their departments and offices via internet or intranet through e-published material like e-newsletters and emails. Data Management is also increasingly being done using e-published techniques and businesses are able maintain complete records of their historical data, marketing and financial information effectively on a single computer system using advanced and reliable electronic storage devices. Storing all this data otherwise would require a lot of shelf space if it was being done using traditional publishing. Also e-publishing enables easy finding, modification and updating of information as well as quick communication and transferring of data across various departments or offices.
MAINSTREAM MEDIA
Thirty years ago to have talked about alternative media would be to conjure up images of small punk fanzines and co-operative Marxist pamphlets printed on thick yellow paper . Then the difference in news values seemed clear. Mainstream media valued news that would sell papers, and was acceptable to the institutional matrix in which the papers found themselves existing; alternative media would value news that had importance in the context of a different value system, often one that directly contested the value of mainstream news. In the age of the blog and webpage, it is no longer so easy to identify the principle differences between alternative and mainstream media: blogs and internet magazines can often support the government position or function as de facto advertising boards for web based companies. This essay will argue it is no longer tenable to understand alternative media by how they value the news. Rather, for the concept to be a useful one, one must analyse the way in which news value is created. In order to do this, we will examine the structure and organisation of the two sorts of media. It will be argued that the absence of institutional pressure and the possibility for collaboration in non hierarchical networks makes alternative media qualitatively different to the mainstream media, and one can see this in the news values that operate in the respective medias.
There is indeed a difference in the news that one can read in the mainstream press and in the alternative press, but this difference is elusive if one attempts to pin it down. There is a surprising homogeneity of headlines in the mainstream press: both the independent and the guardian today lead with stories about the Kashmir earthquake - seemingly understandable given the magnitude of the story, but driven by a wide uniformity of interest. Likewise, we find a bewildering selection of news in the alternative press: catering to partisan and marginal interests from Indymedia UK’s link to a story of the expulsion of sans papiers in Paris, to SavageMinds’ report about aboriginal science in its anthropological news feed. However, it is not enough to assume that these differences in news emerge from situated agents choosing what news they value. Rather, we must follow Foucault in asserting that discourse is produced by power relations, and these power relations are rooted in institutions and power-knowledge relations.
Chomsky argues that "the elite media set a framework within which others operate." Every afternoon the larger newspapers send a memo to the smaller papers announcing what the headline will be in the next day’s paper. This agenda setting is bound up in a series of institutional relations. Most of the large papers in Britain, with the Guardian being the exception, are owned by large corporations, and this involvement within the system of production determines in part the news values mainstream media have. Furthermore, mainstream media needs to be cost-efficient, if not turn a profit, in a capitalist economy. In Britain this has led to the necessity to be first to the news, even if one does not necessarily have the best perspective. Thus journalists are parachuted into war zones without necessarily having much knowledge of the country in which they find themselves. Furthermore the constraints of the competition require stories to be as bold and shocking as possible. For example, the Daily Mail story "Our NHS, not the World Health Service," mobilised and misrepresented a minor statistic in order to produce a shocking headline which would appeal to its readership and sell as many papers as possible. In this example it is important to note the positive feedback between the hostility of the Daily Mail reader towards migrants being justified by the story, which in turns means the newspaper needs to produce even more stories of this sort to sell papers. Foucault , in his work on governmentality, terms this a technique of the self: the way in which hegemonic relations are produced within the body of the subject.
These constraints must then be placed within an institutional framework, which sees journalists rely on academics and government ministers for information. Printing news which took a radically different value perspective to these institutions would endanger one’s ability to access these sources, and thus to compete with one’s rivals in the marketplace. To understand the different values alternative media give to news, we must also understand the sociology of organisation that underlies alternative media.Mainstream media employs professionals. These professionals have a series of skills they have acquired in order to do their job, and have a vested interest in keeping their job, given that their livelihood depends on it. By contrast, alternative media tends to be run on a part-time basis by people who have other specialisations. This allows a much greater freedom to choose stories, because one is not sedimented as strongly within a power-knowledge structure on which one depends .
HOTEL CONTRACT
In this scenario, the first significant point is the nature of the parties’ respective first dealings with one another. From the hotel’s point of view, their first contact with A was through their advertisement on their website. This advertised the price of accommodation at the Scarborough Palms Hotel as being £300. From A’s point of view, his first contact with the hotel is through an initial emailed enquiry. Although we are not told exactly what A’s initial enquiry was concerned with, it is probable that it was simply asking for details of the offer.
In order to establish what the nature of the ultimate contract is, between the hotel and A, it is first necessary to find the ‘offer’ and ‘acceptance’; the constituent parts of any contract. An offer has been held to be a statement which objectively indicates that the person making the ‘offer’ is prepared to contract on the terms specified in that offer . It would at first sight, appear that the hotel’s website and advert for the accommodation at the specified price was an offer. This, however, is not the case, as it has been held by the courts that advertisements are usually ‘invitations to treat’ rather than offers, as the advert usually lacks the other essential ingredient of a contract; an intention to be legally bound This principle is in place in order to protect the advertiser from incurring liability in contract to everyone who is willing to purchase the goods , at the advertised price. An ‘invitation to treat’ is an invitation to the other party to negotiate the terms of a potential contract. A responds to this invitation by making his initial email enquiry, which can similarly be classed as an invitation to treat, or perhaps simply an enquiry. No offer has yet been made by either party
The hotel then respond to A’s initial enquiry informing A of a special promotion that will entitle him to the accommodation at the price of £200. This communication will certainly be counted as an offer, as it displays an intention to be bound by the terms it mentions. A then ‘accepts’ the offer by filling in the online booking form. The hotel have stipulated a means of acceptance, by providing the online booking form which A is required to complete. This is, then, the hotel’s prescribed method of acceptance. A, through no fault of his own, is unable to complete this prescribed method of acceptance, despite his attempt. It is uncertain whether this will affect his ‘acceptance’. In Manchester Diocesan Council for Education v Commercial and General Investments Ltd, it was held that the prescribed method of acceptance was not the only possible one, provided the other method was no less advantageous to the offeror. Unless the hotel specifically stated that the online booking form was the only method of acceptance, A’s posting of a hard copy would be valid.
We come to the issue of communication of the acceptance to the offeror. Upon A’s arrival at the hotel, he is informed that his booking form did not arrive, and that there are no available rooms. It is an established principle that an acceptance must be communicated to the offeror in order for their to be a contract . In the present instance, however, the acceptance has been posted by A. Following Household Fire Insurance v Grant, the acceptance is effectively communicated on posting .In order for this rule to apply, however, it must have been reasonable for A to use the post to accept the offer In this instance, since the online booking form was not working, it seems likely that it would be found to have been a reasonable method of acceptance.
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
It is a widely held view “that human resource management is a central strategic and operational concern within the tourism and hospitality industries, with implications for quality and market positioning of tourism at local, regional and national levels. All stakeholders, be they public or private sector, visitor or host community, would benefit from a close integration of human resource, labour market and education policies.” This work also presents two studies which substantiate this view: one which generally examines policies for human resource development, and another which addresses the policy issues involved.
The delivery of quality products and services, within international tourism, hospitality and events, reflects an increasing focus on intangibles and the role of what can be styled the ‘human factor’. Companies often struggle to create clear distinction and consumer recognition of added value on the basis of physical product differentiation alone except within a relatively limited band of the market. For example, airline brand re-launches, including new first and business-class products, and the executive floor products, within the hotel sector, represent only a small proportion of the global market. Equally, trends in this direction are counter-balanced by the growing strength of budget or economy products, such as cheap hotels and ‘no frills’ airlines in Europe and North America, catering for both the leisure and business customer, and with prices which fluctuate so widely from day to day, that customer service is often the only true differentiator of many of the brands.
The tourism and hospitality sector, in all locations, often has a close relationship with the labour market environment from which it draws its skills and consequently depends on its workforce for the delivery of service and product standards to meet existing and anticipated demand from its visitor marketplace. This relationship is, on the one hand, one of dependency in that the make-up of the local workforce, or that which can be introduced into the local environment, has a direct influence on the standards and character of the tourist offering which can be prepared and presented to visitors – if local art and craft skills are not developed within the education system or at community level, it will not be possible to offer this dimension to visitors.
Baum (1993) identified a number of what were described as “universal themes”: issues which literature and practical experience identified as the major human resource concerns faced by tourism, hospitality and events at both a practical, operational level and in the context of wider strategic and policy-oriented discussion. The main one of these was that employee profiles, and the shrinking employment pool, have resulted in labour and specific skills shortages. This has been identified as being primarily a developed country phenomenon, found in Western Europe, North America and the “tiger economy” countries of the Far East. (Baum, 1993) However, labour shortage is also a concern elsewhere when it is recognized that the specific skills which tourism demands, be it technical, cultural, communications or other, may be in short supply within many, less developed destination areas. Demographic, and other forms of structural change within the labour market, demand responses which take tourism and hospitality recruitment beyond its traditional youth pool into consideration of mature worker alternatives and this, in turn, has major implications for relative remuneration, working conditions, employment security and related issues.
STRATEGIC ALLIANCE
This essay will compare internal development with strategic alliances and look at whether it is better for the organisation to go it alone or partner with other organisations. Internal development is where strategies are developed by building up the organisation’s own resource base and competences, Johnson and Scholes,. Strategic alliances are when two more parties form a collaborative agreement to exchange or combine resources to pursue a development strategy, but remain separate legal entities, Bennett . Joint ventures, licensing, networks are examples of types of alliances.
There are many benefits that can be achieved from going it alone that may not be available through an alliance. First of all, when an organisation develops a highly technical product the organisation through the process of development, may begin to understand its organisation better, and thus learn ways of building up or acquiring competences. This type of learning and development may not be as extensive if alliance partners are involved in the development process. Similarly when an organisation enters new markets through direct investment it can gain advantages that it may not have gained through working through distribution alliance partners.By going it alone – the organisation receives the full benefits of undertaking a development venture – including all the profits, patents, technical know-how and resulting competitive advantages. With alliances, depending on the agreement, any success has to be shared between partners. By undertaking internal development the organisations can exercise greater co-ordination and control over the investment and the objectives of development. With an alliance (e.g. JV), however, organisations may lose that autonomy and find it harder to control the development because decisions have to be taken on a joint basis. Many alliances have failed due to differing objectives or motives by alliance partners. For example, one partner may go into an alliance for short term learning gain, whereas the other partner may see the alliance as more strategic, long term and replacing one area of its value chain, Wit and Meyer (1998). With internal development there can be a greater degree of control and co-ordination, and perhaps a greater chance of the development objectives being met, without disputes.
Going it alone may be a preferential route for those firms who are particularly sensitive about exposing or giving away core competences or skills that provide the organisation with a competitive advantage in the market place. If an organisation believes that the risks of exposure of its core competences are too great through an alliance, it is more likely to use internal development – because core competences can be internalised.Going it alone may make sense to an organisation which is pursuing development which is characterised as “fit led innovation”. When the organisation is able to use or realistically grow its resources and competences to meet the market opportunity. However, if the level of innovation required is more “stretch led” the organisation may have to carefully consider whether it should pursue internal development or other methods of development in order to meet its market opportunity. For some organisations going it alone may be the only option available to them – especially if they are working in a field which is breaking new ground or where there are no other suitable partners available.Therefore going it alone can offer organisations many benefits over other methods of development. However, the method is often criticised for being a slower form of development requiring a higher overall capital outlay and has the downside that the organisation bears the full costs and risks if the development fails. By going it alone an organisation can miss out on all the benefits available to them from alliances. The benefits of alliances will now be discussed in relation to the Xerox-Fuji 50:50 joint venture alliance case study, . The alliance between Xerox and Fuji gave each company significant benefits over and above, them going it alone. Firstly, both companies benefited from sharing the costs of their market and technology development. Fuji and Xerox, were able to bring the “best of the best” from both companies. They were able to pool their resources, competences, skills, technology know-how together to create a new, fresh entity, with defined objectives for both parties Wit and Meyer . Fuji, had the local knowledge of markets, distribution channels and Xerox, excellent skills and know-how in manufacturing and sales, thus the alliance enabled both companies to benefit from each other’s competences. Through an alliance mutual learning can take place which can complement each other’s companies strengths or weaknesses. By going it alone you can limit yourself to the organisation’s own skills and competences and only what you can realistically develop internally.
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
In 1911, Frederick Winslow Taylor responded to President Theodore Roosevelt’s challenge to the people of the United States: “The conservation of our national resources is only preliminary to the larger question of national efficiency”. Taylor’s response took the form of his seminal work, The Principles of Scientific Management, in which he set forth principles for a revolutionary approach to increasing worker efficiency. The introductory quotation captures the essence of the precept underlying Taylor’s concept of scientific management.
The fundamentals of Taylor’s principles are as applicable today as they were almost a century ago, although the methods he recommended for applying the principles have been displaced to a great extent. Beginning with an introduction to Taylor’s principles of scientific management, the appropriateness of his principles for managing modern organisations will be explored and concluding remarks supporting the thesis will be presented.Taylor believed that managers of his time relied on the personal initiative of workers for achieving productivity, but that high levels of productivity expected from worker initiative were rarely attained. In contending that workers performed at levels beneath their true capacities, he professed four principles of scientific management to be followed by managers:Develop a “science” for each element of a worker’s job. Scientifically select workers. Scientifically train and develop workers.Achieve “hearty” cooperation between workers and managers to ensure that work is conforming to the established scientific design, including providing planning and other support to workers to facilitate accomplishment of their jobs.
Taylor cautioned that the principles of scientific management could not be applied piecemeal; rather, the combination of all principles was required. He summarised this combination as “science, not rule of thumb”; “harmony, not discord”; “cooperation, not individualism”; “maximum output, in place of restricted output”; and “development of each man to his greatest efficiency and prosperity”.
Taylor furnished a step-by-step approach for the scientific study of each element of a worker’s job as required by his first principle: (1) identify ten to fifteen workers who are particularly well skilled in performing a job; (2) study the series of basic operations, motions, and tools that these workers use in performing the job; (3) measure, with a stop watch, the time each worker expends in performing each basic operation or motion then select the fastest method; (4) remove any unneeded or slow movements; and (5) establish a procedure using the optimal movements and tools. Taylor contended that the one resulting procedure, or standard, would be much more efficient than were the multiple different procedures previously used by the individual workers. Based on Taylor’s third principle, he suggested that a “teacher”, typically the supervisor, would be taught the selected procedure first then the teacher would train the workers.
The fourth principle, the support of workers by management, included the planning of work, a function that had been performed by the workers themselves in the past. Taylor was, by degree, an engineer. He also had experience as a worker and operating manager in a steel company. His observation was that supervisors used “rules of thumb” in managing their employees. He attributed this to supervisors having to acquire their management skills through “trial and error” rather than through formal training. Workers lacked training and set procedures for their work forcing them to rely on “rules of thumb” as well.
BRAND MANAGEMENT
Overall, the travel market has performed well since 2001, with revenue growth accelerating from 3% in 2002 to 11% in 2004, with total sales for that year being estimated at US 549.4 dollar billion. However, some sectors performed better than others, and the share of air transport fell gradually between 1999 and 2003, partly as a result of falling fares due to industry liberalisation and the growth of low-cost airlines. However, sales rose strongly in 2004 as the travel industry recovered and economic conditions were stronger. Indeed, over the period from 1999 to 2004, online sales grew by a spectacular 403%, to reach US85.2 billion dollar, and the online share of total travel retail sales increased from just 4% in 1999 to almost 16% in 2004. Air transport is by far the largest transportation sector in terms of overall sales, due to its high prices and convenience, with a value share of 58% in 2004.
As of 2004, no-frills airlines were continuing to expand, although there were signs of a shake-out in the industry as several smaller businesses went bankrupt in 2004, and intense competition has also brought some major US carriers to the brink of bankruptcy. In 2004, Air France Group became the leading airline in the world in terms of value market share, after the merger of Air France with Dutch national carrier KLM. The combined airline now operates a fleet of 550 aircraft, serving 189 destinations in 84 countries, through more than 1,800 flights per day. Air France Group had an estimated market share of 6% in 2004, overtaking the previous market leader, Japan Airlines Co Ltd (JAL), and is thus one of the strongest brands in the market, due to its new European identity, and high level of coverage.
JAL Group itself was also the result of a merger in 2002 between Japan Airlines and Japan Air System, and its share fell in 2004 to 5%, due to the group’s poor financial performance in that year. Although domestic routes were reported to have performed well in 2004, the slump in the international segment gave rise to a 72.1 billion dollar operating loss, due to the adverse effects of very low travel confidence in Japan, which prevailed in the first half of fiscal 2004. Nevertheless, JAL continued to increase its leading share in the domestic Japanese market to 43%, well ahead of the number two company, All Nippon Airways, with 34%, due to its strong connections with its country of origin.
The largest US carrier, AMR, was virtually on a par with JAL in both 2003 and 2004 in terms of value market share, and also saw its share fall slightly, to 5% in 2004. The American airlines all suffered from the events of 11 September 2001 and from the economic downturn, and have continued to perform badly. UAL Corp saw its global share fall from almost 6% in 2001 to just over 4% in 2004, while the share of Delta Airlines fell to 4% over the same period. United Air Lines was the most severely hit of the “big three” US airlines after 11 September 2001, and was forced to file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy at the end of 2002. However, after undergoing a drastic restructuring programme, the airline had received the necessary financing to emerge from bankruptcy by the end of 2003. All the US airlines are currently experiencing brand identity crises, as the US continues to associate air travel with the spread of international terrorism.The European airlines British Airways (BA) and Deutsche Lufthansa have also experienced mixed fortunes. While the share of BA fell steadily over the review period, to 4% in 2004, that of Lufthansa rose, placing it almost equal with BA, and Lufthansa recorded increased sales and achieved profits in the first quarter of 2004, compared to a loss in the same period of the previous year. (Global Market Information Database, 2005)Both these firms are struggling to compete with the strongly growing no frills airlines, potentially indicating that the national brand reinforcement is no longer enough to build a strong brand in the airline industry, and that something more is needed.
RETAIL MARKETING AND CUSTOMER LOYALTY
The battle to gain customers and more importantly, their loyally is intensifying as the major retailers continue to position themselves as the main point of contact for shoppers. So, rather than being a Kellog's brand buyer, we are instead becoming a nation of Tesco supporters or Asda fans. The competition between brands, own - label, and discount supermarkets continue to coverage on the market. Given this contentious environment, retailers are now vying for the consumers' attention and more importantly for consumers' loyalty.Using theory covered in the 'Scheme of Work', you are required to analyse the issues surrounding the steady rise in the attention paid to customer loyalty and how retailers may need to change in order to remain competitive.
Growing interest in the study of retailing has been reflected in the growth of the retail industry itself globally. Potter (1982) indeed described the academic study of retailing as 'the Cinderella of the Social Sciences'. Others such as Gilbert (1999) view retail or retailing as any business that directs its marketing efforts towards satisfying the final consumer based on the organisation of the selling of goods and services. Bearing in mind this definition then it is critical to be aware of the role and techniques of retailers placed as they are at the end of the distribution chain. Retailers set up business in order to trade with the general public and attempt to provide convenient and flexible services which may indeed be said to be the very essence of retailing. However due to current trends which have emerged in the retailing industry the extent to which retailers are able to offer these essential ingredients to customers has been challenged by a variety of factors.
The most important of these trends originates from rapid technological development which has not only shaped customer behaviour but also altered the forms of how retailers operate. An example of this trend includes the ever widening use of computerised systems. Electronic control of stock has assisted the electronic retailing of stock a feature in line with consumers preferring to order goods through the mail, telephone or Internet (Walter & Hanrahan, 2000). Indeed technological developments may arguably be one of the principal contributors to the continued growth of home shopping instead of visits to traditional physical retail locations. In addition the emerging global market has resulted in intense competition among local retailers as well as with and between international competitors (McBrien, 1994). As a result consumers have become less loyal to any one retailer and have grown more demanding and sophisticated with retailers as a result seeking to maintain customer loyalty through distinct and high profile branding strategies. However the success of any branding strategy is influenced by various factors. An integrated marketing mix supported by a clear understanding of customer needs is perhaps one of the integral elements of a successful strategy in this regards.
As mentioned there are major trends for retailing in relation to the development of technology and one of the most important of these is the meshing of traditional retailing techniques with new mail, telephone and internet retailing techniques that have emerged with technological developments. This is because one of the main features of retailing is selling small quantities of items on a frequent basis which means factors such as location, time, payment facilities and merchandise are vital considerations for a retailer. Traditionally the shopping centre has played an important role in the retail industry due to its popularity with consumers. Markham (1998) argues that due to the fact consumer's interests are changing dramatically in terms of fashion, style and usage shops in shopping centres have sought to provide up-to-date goods which match these needs. Similarly they have used well-presented merchandise using innovative design techniques in order to create better shopping environments for their customers.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION
For construction project management the objectives depend a lot on resource constraints and the target should be accomplished with these in view. A main component of the whole process would be to investigate for better alternatives or making tradeoffs to reduce the conflicts between stated objectives and resource constraints. Especially with manual resources originating from so many cultural backgrounds, the probability of conflict is far higher.
Modern management can be considered to be a combination of all the ingredients mentioned before, that is General Management, Project management, Special knowledge domains and supporting disciplines. The application of Modern management into construction has proven to be quite effective and efficient.
Project Risk:Risk is an important factor of any project. Taking risk by a participant of a project shows his willingness to compete but has the down side of putting the whole project at stake. There are also potential chances of conflicts being arisen between participants due to this factor. There are usually many risks involved in a construction project, a brief list of which can be stated as follows:Social Problems: This includes factors like Environmental protection, public safety rules.Economic problems: Stock fluctuation, fluctuations in exchange rates.Relationships: This is one of the most common and most important factors. These risks develop due to the instability in relations between contracting agencies, participants of project, etc. Technological: Though a key factor in a project life cycle, technology can become a risky factor sometimes.
It is up to the project owner and upper level managements to resolve the conflicts created by risk and to give the Go/NO-GO order to the team. Once the decision is made to take the risk, the project management and participants should strive to make the project a success.
HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY
“Modern marketing managers practice in a consistently changing environment necessitating the need for the formalisation, implementation and evaluation of strategic marketing plans.” Nevertheless, despite the advocated benefits of strategic marketing planning, there is very little concrete empirical evidence or research to back up this claim, making it very speculative, despite appearing to be common sense. As such, it is very difficult to accurately determine how the changing business environment is likely to affect future growth in any sector, as no one appears to be able to accurately predict how the business environment will behave next. Nevertheless, this piece will attempt to determine how the changing business environment has impacted on the strategic planning in the hotel industry, and thus attempt to predict how it will impact on performance in the future.
Phillips, Davies and Moutinho’s study examines the relationships between strategic marketing planning and performance, extending the knowledge of strategic marketing planning and performance by focusing on the service industry, and providing potential controls for market-level influences, by restricting itself to the hotel sector.. The study examines the interactive effects of strategic marketing planning and performance, and its findings suggest that the issue is not whether strategic marketing planning affects performance, but rather what marketing capabilities are required to enhance performance. Indeed, Lecoustay (2004) claims that today, in spite of high-tech, constantly developing, computerised systems; it is still the revenue, or sales manager who makes the difference with his knowledge, flexibility, vigilance and reactivity to rapid changes in the environment. As such, this appears to be one area in which the changing business environment will not significantly, or predictably, affect future performance, as long as management skill levels remain at a relatively constant level.
However, with the interconnectivity of the various electronic distribution channels, the distribution opportunities are tremendous, as hotels now have access to a unique, massive and complex system: the Internet. This is increasing transparency and making all type of rates available to everyone: for instance, some promotional offers are, through a specific distribution channel, and targeted at a particular market segment. Nevertheless there are currently some limits to online marketing techniques, including the need to ensure that the pricing structure is coherent, in order to address all market segments, and also a need to understand each segment. This coherence of the pricing across the distribution channels is fundamental to success in the long term, thus hotel management must still be aware of the benefits of good revenue and distribution management. Given that these still rely very much on how advanced the respective manager is in spotting the changes in the environment, reacting and adapting his strategy, and that the complexity of the electronic distribution also requires increasing levels of expertise from the persons operating the levers, Lecoustay’s (2004) work still relies heavily on the skills of the people involved, and thus this will still determine growth potential for the foreseeable future.
Zhen and Denise Chang (2003) conducted similar research into strategies utilised by hoteliers, although their work focused strongly on the tourism industry in Ontario, Canada. They also found that limited research exists on the current strategic issues and thus they conducted a pilot study via e-mail survey, attempting to identify the current strategic issues and strategies implemented by hotels in the current environment. Results showed that among the most concerning issues are a lack of financial and government support, changing customer needs, increasing power of customer purchasing through the Internet and the top internal environment concern is related to human resources. As such, although changing customer needs and increasing purchasing power are a concern for many in the hotel industry, there is very little evidence to suggest that this will affect growth overall, rather it may punish individual firms who fail to adapt to the changing environment.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Internet has been the buzzword for the people around the world in the last decade. Very few people will disagree about the fact that everyone likes to do most of their activities in the most easiest and flexible way possible. Ease and Flexibility is what Internet has provided to the mankind irrespective of profession or leisure based activity. Today internet is widely used by the business world for conducting their daily chores and by individuals to interact, learn and relax. Almost everything can be done online even if it is not in its true physical sense. The multifaceted benefits of internet are so compelling that even governments are taking the initiative to include it in their national policymaking. There is absolutely no doubt in the authors mind that Internet does provide a lot of convenience to the society but is that all? In this report the author will elaborate the darker side of internet and its implications on the individuals and society on the whole.
Internet Addiction
When the government starts actively promoting the use of internet nationwide, people ranging from every age group are bound to venture into the cyberspace. Many users utilize the perils of internet and use it for the right purpose only but others fall prey to the dark side of internet. These people who are lured into the dark work internet are usually categorized as Internet addicts. Addiction may be considered as the condition of being habitually or compulsively occupied with or involved in something. In most cases it includes alcoholism, drug addiction, smoking, gambling and watching television etc. Previous research shows that internet can also be addictive . An in depth look into the literature suggest that there are two different views while stating internet as addictive. On one side a collection of researchers believe that internet addiction can be compared with substance addiction whereas others are of the opinion that it has relevance with pathological gambling . There is a lot of difference in opinion and the available research does not pin point any evidence based cause for the internet to be termed as addictive. Even after the disagreement among researchers the following activities are generally categorized as addictive on the internet: Online Chatting, Online Shopping, Online Gambling, Exchanging messages using Online Message Boards, Browsing explicit sexual content and to some extent using emails. Few of these like gambling, shopping and viewing of sexual content are accepted as addiction with more ease than the others but the fact that each of them can have severe implications can be seen from the discussion in the next section.
Implications of Internet Addiction
In the previous section a list of possible online activities were presented which may be categorized as addiction. Most of the mentioned categorize are causing major problems in the main categories of everyday life including family, work, relationship and children.
In family arena a member of the family who has become an internet addict tends to withdraw from the family and spend a lot of time surfing the net and in a way moves away from the family. In many cases the other family members are of the view that internet had hijacked their close one from them. In relationships the partners who have ventured into the world of cyberspace start giving preference to internet over their other partner and are resulting in divorce in many cases . In professional life or rather in the office people are spending more time in exchanging personal emails and messages through chatting rather than concentrating on their work and are loosing productive time. Even after many warnings the employees are continuing to do so and as a result are loosing their jobs. Another major problem that has increased substantially over the last decade in the use of the internet for sex related activities. This becomes even worse when children are exposed to such explicit material. This will be covered in detail in the following sections. Online gambling has become the second most hated menace after online pornography as this gives a lot of people an easy option to gamble 24 hours a day sitting in a relaxed atmosphere. As a result of this more and more people are becoming bankrupt.
Apart from the above consequences there are many other smaller damages that internet is having on individuals like provoking them to lie and cover-up for their addiction and keep secrets from their close ones. An entire book can written on this topic citing numerous real life examples but due to the limitations of this report the major negative effects of internet addiction therefore may be summarized as Families in crisis, Lost Jobs, College expulsion, destroyed marriage, deepening depression, mounting debts, broken trust, pedophiles stalking kids and teenagers breaking down.
